1# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- 2# elements.py 3 4# Copyright (c) 2005-2014, Christoph Gohlke 5# All rights reserved. 6# 7# Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without 8# modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 9# 10# * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright 11# notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 12# * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright 13# notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the 14# documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 15# * Neither the name of the copyright holders nor the names of any 16# contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived 17# from this software without specific prior written permission. 18# 19# THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" 20# AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE 21# IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE 22# ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE 23# LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR 24# CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF 25# SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS 26# INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN 27# CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) 28# ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE 29# POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. 30 31"""Properties of the chemical elements. 32 33Each chemical element is represented as an object instance. Physicochemical 34and descriptive properties of the elements are stored as instance attributes. 35 36:Author: `Christoph Gohlke <http://www.lfd.uci.edu/~gohlke/>`_ 37 38:Version: 2013.03.18 39 40Requirements 41------------ 42* `CPython 2.7 or 3.3 <http://www.python.org>`_ 43 44References 45---------- 46(1) http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/Compositions/ 47(2) http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/IonEnergy/tblNew.html 48(3) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%(element.name)s 49(4) http://www.miranda.org/~jkominek/elements/elements.db 50 51Examples 52-------- 53>>> from elements import ELEMENTS 54>>> len(ELEMENTS) 55109 56>>> str(ELEMENTS[109]) 57'Meitnerium' 58>>> ele = ELEMENTS['C'] 59>>> ele.number, ele.symbol, ele.name, ele.eleconfig 60(6, 'C', 'Carbon', '[He] 2s2 2p2') 61>>> ele.eleconfig_dict 62{(1, 's'): 2, (2, 'p'): 2, (2, 's'): 2} 63>>> sum(ele.mass for ele in ELEMENTS) 6414659.1115599 65>>> for ele in ELEMENTS: 66... ele.validate() 67... ele = eval(repr(ele)) 68 69""" 70 71from __future__ import division, print_function 72 73__version__ = '2013.03.18' 74__docformat__ = 'restructuredtext en' 75__all__ = ['ELEMENTS'] 76 77 78class lazyattr(object): 79 """Lazy object attribute whose value is computed on first access.""" 80 __slots__ = ['func'] 81 82 def __init__(self, func): 83 self.func = func 84 85 def __get__(self, instance, owner): 86 result = self.func(instance) 87 if result is NotImplemented: 88 return getattr(super(owner, instance), self.func.__name__) 89 setattr(instance, self.func.__name__, result) 90 return result 91 92 93class Element(object): 94 """Chemical element. 95 96 Attributes 97 ---------- 98 number : int 99 Atomic number 100 symbol : str of length 1 or 2 101 Chemical symbol 102 name : str 103 Name in english 104 group : int 105 Group in periodic table 106 period : int 107 Period in periodic table 108 block : int 109 Block in periodic table 110 series : int 111 Index to chemical series 112 protons : int 113 Number of protons 114 neutrons : int 115 Number of neutrons in the most abundant naturally occurring stable 116 isotope 117 nominalmass : int 118 Mass number of the most abundant naturally occurring stable isotope 119 electrons : int 120 Number of electrons 121 mass : float 122 Relative atomic mass. Ratio of the average mass of atoms 123 of the element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of 12C 124 exactmass : float 125 Relative atomic mass calculated from the isotopic composition 126 eleneg : float 127 Electronegativity (Pauling scale) 128 covrad : float 129 Covalent radius in Angstrom 130 atmrad : 131 Atomic radius in Angstrom 132 vdwrad : float 133 Van der Waals radius in Angstrom 134 tboil : float 135 Boiling temperature in K 136 tmelt : float 137 Melting temperature in K 138 density : float 139 Density at 295K in g/cm3 respectively g/L 140 oxistates : str 141 Oxidation states 142 eleaffin : float 143 Electron affinity in eV 144 eleconfig : str 145 Ground state electron configuration 146 eleconfig_dict : dict 147 Ground state electron configuration (shell, subshell): electrons 148 eleshells : int 149 Number of electrons per shell 150 ionenergy : tuple 151 Ionization energies in eV 152 isotopes : dict 153 Isotopic composition. 154 keys: isotope mass number 155 values: Isotope(relative atomic mass, abundance) 156 157 """ 158 def __init__(self, number, symbol, name, **kwargs): 159 self.number = number 160 self.symbol = symbol 161 self.name = name 162 self.electrons = number 163 self.protons = number 164 self.__dict__.update(kwargs) 165 166 def __str__(self): 167 return self.name 168 169 def __repr__(self): 170 ionenergy = [] 171 for i, j in enumerate(self.ionenergy): 172 if i and (i % 5 == 0): 173 ionenergy.append("\n" + " " * 15) 174 ionenergy.append("%s, " % j) 175 ionenergy = "".join(ionenergy) 176 177 isotopes = [] 178 for massnum in sorted(self.isotopes): 179 iso = self.isotopes[massnum] 180 isotopes.append("%i: Isotope(%s, %s, %i)" % ( 181 massnum, iso.mass, iso.abundance, massnum)) 182 isotopes = ",\n ".join(isotopes) 183 184 description = word_wrap(self.description, linelen=66, indent=0, 185 joinstr=""" "\n \"""") 186 description = """ e['%s'].description = (\n "%s\")""" % ( 187 self.symbol, description) 188 # return description 189 190 result = [ 191 "Element(\n %i, '%s', '%s'" % ( 192 self.number, self.symbol, self.name), 193 "group=%s, period=%s, block='%s', series=%i" % ( 194 self.group, self.period, self.block, self.series), 195 "mass=%s, eleneg=%s, eleaffin=%s" % ( 196 self.mass, self.eleneg, self.eleaffin), 197 "covrad=%s, atmrad=%s, vdwrad=%s" % ( 198 self.covrad, self.atmrad, self.vdwrad), 199 "tboil=%s, tmelt=%s, density=%s" % ( 200 self.tboil, self.tmelt, self.density), 201 "eleconfig='%s'" % self.eleconfig, 202 "oxistates='%s'" % self.oxistates, 203 "ionenergy=(%s)" % ionenergy, 204 "isotopes={%s})" % isotopes 205 ] 206 return ",\n ".join(result) 207 208 @lazyattr 209 def nominalmass(self): 210 """Return mass number of most abundant natural stable isotope.""" 211 nominalmass = 0 212 maxabundance = 0 213 for massnum, iso in self.isotopes.items(): 214 if iso.abundance > maxabundance: 215 maxabundance = iso.abundance 216 nominalmass = massnum 217 return nominalmass 218 219 @lazyattr 220 def neutrons(self): 221 """Return number neutrons in most abundant natural stable isotope.""" 222 return self.nominalmass - self.protons 223 224 @lazyattr 225 def exactmass(self): 226 """Return relative atomic mass calculated from isotopic composition.""" 227 return sum(iso.mass * iso.abundance for iso in self.isotopes.values()) 228 229 @lazyattr 230 def eleconfig_dict(self): 231 """Return electron configuration as dict.""" 232 adict = {} 233 if self.eleconfig.startswith('['): 234 base = self.eleconfig.split(' ', 1)[0][1:-1] 235 adict.update(ELEMENTS[base].eleconfig_dict) 236 for e in self.eleconfig.split()[bool(adict):]: 237 adict[(int(e[0]), e[1])] = int(e[2:]) if len(e) > 2 else 1 238 return adict 239 240 @lazyattr 241 def eleshells(self): 242 """Return number of electrons in shell as tuple.""" 243 eleshells = [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0] 244 for key, val in self.eleconfig_dict.items(): 245 eleshells[key[0] - 1] += val 246 return tuple(ele for ele in eleshells if ele) 247 248 @lazyattr 249 def description(self): 250 """Return text description of element.""" 251 return _descriptions(self.symbol) 252 253 def validate(self): 254 """Check consistency of data. Raise Error on failure.""" 255 assert self.period in PERIODS 256 assert self.group in GROUPS 257 assert self.block in BLOCKS 258 assert self.series in SERIES 259 260 if self.number != self.protons: 261 raise ValueError( 262 "%s - atomic number must equal proton number" % self.symbol) 263 if self.protons != sum(self.eleshells): 264 raise ValueError( 265 "%s - number of protons must equal electrons" % self.symbol) 266 267 mass = 0.0 268 frac = 0.0 269 for iso in self.isotopes.values(): 270 mass += iso.abundance * iso.mass 271 frac += iso.abundance 272 if abs(mass - self.mass) > 0.03: 273 raise ValueError( 274 "%s - average of isotope masses (%.4f) != mass (%.4f)" % ( 275 self.symbol, mass, self.mass)) 276 if abs(frac - 1.0) > 1e-9: 277 raise ValueError( 278 "%s - sum of isotope abundances != 1.0" % self.symbol) 279 280 281class Isotope(object): 282 """Isotope massnumber, relative atomic mass, and abundance.""" 283 __slots__ = ['massnumber', 'mass', 'abundance'] 284 285 def __init__(self, mass=0.0, abundance=1.0, massnumber=0): 286 self.mass = mass 287 self.abundance = abundance 288 self.massnumber = massnumber 289 290 def __str__(self): 291 return "%i, %.4f, %.6f%%" % (self.massnumber, self.mass, 292 self.abundance * 100) 293 294 def __repr__(self): 295 return "Isotope(%s, %s, %s)" % ( 296 repr(self.mass), repr(self.abundance), repr(self.massnumber)) 297 298 299class ElementsDict(object): 300 """Ordered dict of Elements with lookup by number, symbol, and name.""" 301 def __init__(self, *elements): 302 self._list = [] 303 self._dict = {} 304 for element in elements: 305 if element.number > len(self._list) + 1: 306 raise ValueError("Elements must be added in order") 307 if element.number <= len(self._list): 308 self._list[element.number - 1] = element 309 else: 310 self._list.append(element) 311 self._dict[element.number] = element 312 self._dict[element.symbol] = element 313 self._dict[element.name] = element 314 315 def __str__(self): 316 return "[%s]" % ", ".join(ele.symbol for ele in self._list) 317 318 def __contains__(self, item): 319 return item in self._dict 320 321 def __iter__(self): 322 return iter(self._list) 323 324 def __len__(self): 325 return len(self._list) 326 327 def __getitem__(self, key): 328 try: 329 return self._dict[key] 330 except KeyError: 331 try: 332 start, stop, step = key.indices(len(self._list)) 333 return self._list[slice(start - 1, stop - 1, step)] 334 except: 335 raise KeyError("key %s not found" % key) 336 337 338ELEMENTS = ElementsDict( 339 Element( 340 1, 'H', 'Hydrogen', 341 group=1, period=1, block='s', series=1, 342 mass=1.00794, eleneg=2.2, eleaffin=0.75420375, 343 covrad=0.32, atmrad=0.79, vdwrad=1.2, 344 tboil=20.28, tmelt=13.81, density=0.084, 345 eleconfig='1s', 346 oxistates='1*, -1', 347 ionenergy=(13.5984, ), 348 isotopes={1: Isotope(1.0078250321, 0.999885, 1), 349 2: Isotope(2.014101778, 0.000115, 2)}), 350 Element( 351 2, 'He', 'Helium', 352 group=18, period=1, block='s', series=2, 353 mass=4.002602, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 354 covrad=0.93, atmrad=0.49, vdwrad=1.4, 355 tboil=4.216, tmelt=0.95, density=0.1785, 356 eleconfig='1s2', 357 oxistates='*', 358 ionenergy=(24.5874, 54.416, ), 359 isotopes={3: Isotope(3.0160293097, 1.37e-06, 3), 360 4: Isotope(4.0026032497, 0.99999863, 4)}), 361 Element( 362 3, 'Li', 'Lithium', 363 group=1, period=2, block='s', series=3, 364 mass=6.941, eleneg=0.98, eleaffin=0.618049, 365 covrad=1.23, atmrad=2.05, vdwrad=1.82, 366 tboil=1615.0, tmelt=453.7, density=0.53, 367 eleconfig='[He] 2s', 368 oxistates='1*', 369 ionenergy=(5.3917, 75.638, 122.451, ), 370 isotopes={6: Isotope(6.0151223, 0.0759, 6), 371 7: Isotope(7.016004, 0.9241, 7)}), 372 Element( 373 4, 'Be', 'Beryllium', 374 group=2, period=2, block='s', series=4, 375 mass=9.012182, eleneg=1.57, eleaffin=0.0, 376 covrad=0.9, atmrad=1.4, vdwrad=0.0, 377 tboil=3243.0, tmelt=1560.0, density=1.85, 378 eleconfig='[He] 2s2', 379 oxistates='2*', 380 ionenergy=(9.3227, 18.211, 153.893, 217.713, ), 381 isotopes={9: Isotope(9.0121821, 1.0, 9)}), 382 Element( 383 5, 'B', 'Boron', 384 group=13, period=2, block='p', series=5, 385 mass=10.811, eleneg=2.04, eleaffin=0.279723, 386 covrad=0.82, atmrad=1.17, vdwrad=0.0, 387 tboil=4275.0, tmelt=2365.0, density=2.46, 388 eleconfig='[He] 2s2 2p', 389 oxistates='3*', 390 ionenergy=(8.298, 25.154, 37.93, 59.368, 340.217, ), 391 isotopes={10: Isotope(10.012937, 0.199, 10), 392 11: Isotope(11.0093055, 0.801, 11)}), 393 Element( 394 6, 'C', 'Carbon', 395 group=14, period=2, block='p', series=1, 396 mass=12.0107, eleneg=2.55, eleaffin=1.262118, 397 covrad=0.77, atmrad=0.91, vdwrad=1.7, 398 tboil=5100.0, tmelt=3825.0, density=3.51, 399 eleconfig='[He] 2s2 2p2', 400 oxistates='4*, 2, -4*', 401 ionenergy=(11.2603, 24.383, 47.877, 64.492, 392.077, 402 489.981, ), 403 isotopes={12: Isotope(12.0, 0.9893, 12), 404 13: Isotope(13.0033548378, 0.0107, 13)}), 405 Element( 406 7, 'N', 'Nitrogen', 407 group=15, period=2, block='p', series=1, 408 mass=14.0067, eleneg=3.04, eleaffin=-0.07, 409 covrad=0.75, atmrad=0.75, vdwrad=1.55, 410 tboil=77.344, tmelt=63.15, density=1.17, 411 eleconfig='[He] 2s2 2p3', 412 oxistates='5, 4, 3, 2, -3*', 413 ionenergy=(14.5341, 39.601, 47.488, 77.472, 97.888, 414 522.057, 667.029, ), 415 isotopes={14: Isotope(14.0030740052, 0.99632, 14), 416 15: Isotope(15.0001088984, 0.00368, 15)}), 417 Element( 418 8, 'O', 'Oxygen', 419 group=16, period=2, block='p', series=1, 420 mass=15.9994, eleneg=3.44, eleaffin=1.461112, 421 covrad=0.73, atmrad=0.65, vdwrad=1.52, 422 tboil=90.188, tmelt=54.8, density=1.33, 423 eleconfig='[He] 2s2 2p4', 424 oxistates='-2*, -1', 425 ionenergy=(13.6181, 35.116, 54.934, 54.934, 77.412, 426 113.896, 138.116, 739.315, 871.387, ), 427 isotopes={16: Isotope(15.9949146221, 0.99757, 16), 428 17: Isotope(16.9991315, 0.00038, 17), 429 18: Isotope(17.9991604, 0.00205, 18)}), 430 Element( 431 9, 'F', 'Fluorine', 432 group=17, period=2, block='p', series=6, 433 mass=18.9984032, eleneg=3.98, eleaffin=3.4011887, 434 covrad=0.72, atmrad=0.57, vdwrad=1.47, 435 tboil=85.0, tmelt=53.55, density=1.58, 436 eleconfig='[He] 2s2 2p5', 437 oxistates='-1*', 438 ionenergy=(17.4228, 34.97, 62.707, 87.138, 114.24, 439 157.161, 185.182, 953.886, 1103.089, ), 440 isotopes={19: Isotope(18.9984032, 1.0, 19)}), 441 Element( 442 10, 'Ne', 'Neon', 443 group=18, period=2, block='p', series=2, 444 mass=20.1797, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 445 covrad=0.71, atmrad=0.51, vdwrad=1.54, 446 tboil=27.1, tmelt=24.55, density=0.8999, 447 eleconfig='[He] 2s2 2p6', 448 oxistates='*', 449 ionenergy=(21.5645, 40.962, 63.45, 97.11, 126.21, 450 157.93, 207.27, 239.09, 1195.797, 1362.164, ), 451 isotopes={20: Isotope(19.9924401759, 0.9048, 20), 452 21: Isotope(20.99384674, 0.0027, 21), 453 22: Isotope(21.99138551, 0.0925, 22)}), 454 Element( 455 11, 'Na', 'Sodium', 456 group=1, period=3, block='s', series=3, 457 mass=22.98977, eleneg=0.93, eleaffin=0.547926, 458 covrad=1.54, atmrad=2.23, vdwrad=2.27, 459 tboil=1156.0, tmelt=371.0, density=0.97, 460 eleconfig='[Ne] 3s', 461 oxistates='1*', 462 ionenergy=(5.1391, 47.286, 71.64, 98.91, 138.39, 463 172.15, 208.47, 264.18, 299.87, 1465.091, 464 1648.659, ), 465 isotopes={23: Isotope(22.98976967, 1.0, 23)}), 466 Element( 467 12, 'Mg', 'Magnesium', 468 group=2, period=3, block='s', series=4, 469 mass=24.305, eleneg=1.31, eleaffin=0.0, 470 covrad=1.36, atmrad=1.72, vdwrad=1.73, 471 tboil=1380.0, tmelt=922.0, density=1.74, 472 eleconfig='[Ne] 3s2', 473 oxistates='2*', 474 ionenergy=(7.6462, 15.035, 80.143, 109.24, 141.26, 475 186.5, 224.94, 265.9, 327.95, 367.53, 476 1761.802, 1962.613, ), 477 isotopes={24: Isotope(23.9850419, 0.7899, 24), 478 25: Isotope(24.98583702, 0.1, 25), 479 26: Isotope(25.98259304, 0.1101, 26)}), 480 Element( 481 13, 'Al', 'Aluminium', 482 group=13, period=3, block='p', series=7, 483 mass=26.981538, eleneg=1.61, eleaffin=0.43283, 484 covrad=1.18, atmrad=1.82, vdwrad=0.0, 485 tboil=2740.0, tmelt=933.5, density=2.7, 486 eleconfig='[Ne] 3s2 3p', 487 oxistates='3*', 488 ionenergy=(5.9858, 18.828, 28.447, 119.99, 153.71, 489 190.47, 241.43, 284.59, 330.21, 398.57, 490 442.07, 2085.983, 2304.08, ), 491 isotopes={27: Isotope(26.98153844, 1.0, 27)}), 492 Element( 493 14, 'Si', 'Silicon', 494 group=14, period=3, block='p', series=5, 495 mass=28.0855, eleneg=1.9, eleaffin=1.389521, 496 covrad=1.11, atmrad=1.46, vdwrad=2.1, 497 tboil=2630.0, tmelt=1683.0, density=2.33, 498 eleconfig='[Ne] 3s2 3p2', 499 oxistates='4*, -4', 500 ionenergy=(8.1517, 16.345, 33.492, 45.141, 166.77, 501 205.05, 246.52, 303.17, 351.1, 401.43, 502 476.06, 523.5, 2437.676, 2673.108, ), 503 isotopes={28: Isotope(27.9769265327, 0.922297, 28), 504 29: Isotope(28.97649472, 0.046832, 29), 505 30: Isotope(29.97377022, 0.030871, 30)}), 506 Element( 507 15, 'P', 'Phosphorus', 508 group=15, period=3, block='p', series=1, 509 mass=30.973761, eleneg=2.19, eleaffin=0.7465, 510 covrad=1.06, atmrad=1.23, vdwrad=1.8, 511 tboil=553.0, tmelt=317.3, density=1.82, 512 eleconfig='[Ne] 3s2 3p3', 513 oxistates='5*, 3, -3', 514 ionenergy=(10.4867, 19.725, 30.18, 51.37, 65.023, 515 220.43, 263.22, 309.41, 371.73, 424.5, 516 479.57, 560.41, 611.85, 2816.943, 3069.762, ), 517 isotopes={31: Isotope(30.97376151, 1.0, 31)}), 518 Element( 519 16, 'S', 'Sulfur', 520 group=16, period=3, block='p', series=1, 521 mass=32.065, eleneg=2.58, eleaffin=2.0771029, 522 covrad=1.02, atmrad=1.09, vdwrad=1.8, 523 tboil=717.82, tmelt=392.2, density=2.06, 524 eleconfig='[Ne] 3s2 3p4', 525 oxistates='6*, 4, 2, -2', 526 ionenergy=(10.36, 23.33, 34.83, 47.3, 72.68, 527 88.049, 280.93, 328.23, 379.1, 447.09, 528 504.78, 564.65, 651.63, 707.14, 3223.836, 529 3494.099, ), 530 isotopes={32: Isotope(31.97207069, 0.9493, 32), 531 33: Isotope(32.9714585, 0.0076, 33), 532 34: Isotope(33.96786683, 0.0429, 34), 533 36: Isotope(35.96708088, 0.0002, 36)}), 534 Element( 535 17, 'Cl', 'Chlorine', 536 group=17, period=3, block='p', series=6, 537 mass=35.453, eleneg=3.16, eleaffin=3.612724, 538 covrad=0.99, atmrad=0.97, vdwrad=1.75, 539 tboil=239.18, tmelt=172.17, density=2.95, 540 eleconfig='[Ne] 3s2 3p5', 541 oxistates='7, 5, 3, 1, -1*', 542 ionenergy=(12.9676, 23.81, 39.61, 53.46, 67.8, 543 98.03, 114.193, 348.28, 400.05, 455.62, 544 529.97, 591.97, 656.69, 749.75, 809.39, 545 3658.425, 3946.193, ), 546 isotopes={35: Isotope(34.96885271, 0.7578, 35), 547 37: Isotope(36.9659026, 0.2422, 37)}), 548 Element( 549 18, 'Ar', 'Argon', 550 group=18, period=3, block='p', series=2, 551 mass=39.948, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 552 covrad=0.98, atmrad=0.88, vdwrad=1.88, 553 tboil=87.45, tmelt=83.95, density=1.66, 554 eleconfig='[Ne] 3s2 3p6', 555 oxistates='*', 556 ionenergy=(15.7596, 27.629, 40.74, 59.81, 75.02, 557 91.007, 124.319, 143.456, 422.44, 478.68, 558 538.95, 618.24, 686.09, 755.73, 854.75, 559 918.0, 4120.778, 4426.114, ), 560 isotopes={36: Isotope(35.96754628, 0.003365, 36), 561 38: Isotope(37.9627322, 0.000632, 38), 562 40: Isotope(39.962383123, 0.996003, 40)}), 563 Element( 564 19, 'K', 'Potassium', 565 group=1, period=4, block='s', series=3, 566 mass=39.0983, eleneg=0.82, eleaffin=0.501459, 567 covrad=2.03, atmrad=2.77, vdwrad=2.75, 568 tboil=1033.0, tmelt=336.8, density=0.86, 569 eleconfig='[Ar] 4s', 570 oxistates='1*', 571 ionenergy=(4.3407, 31.625, 45.72, 60.91, 82.66, 572 100.0, 117.56, 154.86, 175.814, 503.44, 573 564.13, 629.09, 714.02, 787.13, 861.77, 574 968.0, 1034.0, 4610.955, 4933.931, ), 575 isotopes={39: Isotope(38.9637069, 0.932581, 39), 576 40: Isotope(39.96399867, 0.000117, 40), 577 41: Isotope(40.96182597, 0.067302, 41)}), 578 Element( 579 20, 'Ca', 'Calcium', 580 group=2, period=4, block='s', series=4, 581 mass=40.078, eleneg=1.0, eleaffin=0.02455, 582 covrad=1.74, atmrad=2.23, vdwrad=0.0, 583 tboil=1757.0, tmelt=1112.0, density=1.54, 584 eleconfig='[Ar] 4s2', 585 oxistates='2*', 586 ionenergy=(6.1132, 11.71, 50.908, 67.1, 84.41, 587 108.78, 127.7, 147.24, 188.54, 211.27, 588 591.25, 656.39, 726.03, 816.61, 895.12, 589 974.0, 1087.0, 1157.0, 5129.045, 5469.738, ), 590 isotopes={40: Isotope(39.9625912, 0.96941, 40), 591 42: Isotope(41.9586183, 0.00647, 42), 592 43: Isotope(42.9587668, 0.00135, 43), 593 44: Isotope(43.9554811, 0.02086, 44), 594 46: Isotope(45.9536928, 4e-05, 46), 595 48: Isotope(47.952534, 0.00187, 48)}), 596 Element( 597 21, 'Sc', 'Scandium', 598 group=3, period=4, block='d', series=8, 599 mass=44.95591, eleneg=1.36, eleaffin=0.188, 600 covrad=1.44, atmrad=2.09, vdwrad=0.0, 601 tboil=3109.0, tmelt=1814.0, density=2.99, 602 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d 4s2', 603 oxistates='3*', 604 ionenergy=(6.5615, 12.8, 24.76, 73.47, 91.66, 605 11.1, 138.0, 158.7, 180.02, 225.32, 606 225.32, 685.89, 755.47, 829.79, 926.0, ), 607 isotopes={45: Isotope(44.9559102, 1.0, 45)}), 608 Element( 609 22, 'Ti', 'Titanium', 610 group=4, period=4, block='d', series=8, 611 mass=47.867, eleneg=1.54, eleaffin=0.084, 612 covrad=1.32, atmrad=2.0, vdwrad=0.0, 613 tboil=3560.0, tmelt=1935.0, density=4.51, 614 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d2 4s2', 615 oxistates='4*, 3', 616 ionenergy=(6.8281, 13.58, 27.491, 43.266, 99.22, 617 119.36, 140.8, 168.5, 193.5, 193.2, 618 215.91, 265.23, 291.497, 787.33, 861.33, ), 619 isotopes={46: Isotope(45.9526295, 0.0825, 46), 620 47: Isotope(46.9517638, 0.0744, 47), 621 48: Isotope(47.9479471, 0.7372, 48), 622 49: Isotope(48.9478708, 0.0541, 49), 623 50: Isotope(49.9447921, 0.0518, 50)}), 624 Element( 625 23, 'V', 'Vanadium', 626 group=5, period=4, block='d', series=8, 627 mass=50.9415, eleneg=1.63, eleaffin=0.525, 628 covrad=1.22, atmrad=1.92, vdwrad=0.0, 629 tboil=3650.0, tmelt=2163.0, density=6.09, 630 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d3 4s2', 631 oxistates='5*, 4, 3, 2, 0', 632 ionenergy=(6.7462, 14.65, 29.31, 46.707, 65.23, 633 128.12, 150.17, 173.7, 205.8, 230.5, 634 255.04, 308.25, 336.267, 895.58, 974.02, ), 635 isotopes={50: Isotope(49.9471628, 0.0025, 50), 636 51: Isotope(50.9439637, 0.9975, 51)}), 637 Element( 638 24, 'Cr', 'Chromium', 639 group=6, period=4, block='d', series=8, 640 mass=51.9961, eleneg=1.66, eleaffin=0.67584, 641 covrad=1.18, atmrad=1.85, vdwrad=0.0, 642 tboil=2945.0, tmelt=2130.0, density=7.14, 643 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d5 4s', 644 oxistates='6, 3*, 2, 0', 645 ionenergy=(6.7665, 16.5, 30.96, 49.1, 69.3, 646 90.56, 161.1, 184.7, 209.3, 244.4, 647 270.8, 298.0, 355.0, 384.3, 1010.64, ), 648 isotopes={50: Isotope(49.9460496, 0.04345, 50), 649 52: Isotope(51.9405119, 0.83789, 52), 650 53: Isotope(52.9406538, 0.09501, 53), 651 54: Isotope(53.9388849, 0.02365, 54)}), 652 Element( 653 25, 'Mn', 'Manganese', 654 group=7, period=4, block='d', series=8, 655 mass=54.938049, eleneg=1.55, eleaffin=0.0, 656 covrad=1.17, atmrad=1.79, vdwrad=0.0, 657 tboil=2235.0, tmelt=1518.0, density=7.44, 658 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d5 4s2', 659 oxistates='7, 6, 4, 3, 2*, 0, -1', 660 ionenergy=(7.434, 15.64, 33.667, 51.2, 72.4, 661 95.0, 119.27, 196.46, 221.8, 248.3, 662 286.0, 314.4, 343.6, 404.0, 435.3, 663 1136.2, ), 664 isotopes={55: Isotope(54.9380496, 1.0, 55)}), 665 Element( 666 26, 'Fe', 'Iron', 667 group=8, period=4, block='d', series=8, 668 mass=55.845, eleneg=1.83, eleaffin=0.151, 669 covrad=1.17, atmrad=1.72, vdwrad=0.0, 670 tboil=3023.0, tmelt=1808.0, density=7.874, 671 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d6 4s2', 672 oxistates='6, 3*, 2, 0, -2', 673 ionenergy=(7.9024, 16.18, 30.651, 54.8, 75.0, 674 99.0, 125.0, 151.06, 235.04, 262.1, 675 290.4, 330.8, 361.0, 392.2, 457.0, 676 485.5, 1266.1, ), 677 isotopes={54: Isotope(53.9396148, 0.05845, 54), 678 56: Isotope(55.9349421, 0.91754, 56), 679 57: Isotope(56.9353987, 0.02119, 57), 680 58: Isotope(57.9332805, 0.00282, 58)}), 681 Element( 682 27, 'Co', 'Cobalt', 683 group=9, period=4, block='d', series=8, 684 mass=58.9332, eleneg=1.88, eleaffin=0.6633, 685 covrad=1.16, atmrad=1.67, vdwrad=0.0, 686 tboil=3143.0, tmelt=1768.0, density=8.89, 687 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d7 4s2', 688 oxistates='3, 2*, 0, -1', 689 ionenergy=(7.881, 17.06, 33.5, 51.3, 79.5, 690 102.0, 129.0, 157.0, 186.13, 276.0, 691 305.0, 336.0, 376.0, 411.0, 444.0, 692 512.0, 546.8, 1403.0, ), 693 isotopes={59: Isotope(58.9332002, 1.0, 59)}), 694 Element( 695 28, 'Ni', 'Nickel', 696 group=10, period=4, block='d', series=8, 697 mass=58.6934, eleneg=1.91, eleaffin=1.15716, 698 covrad=1.15, atmrad=1.62, vdwrad=1.63, 699 tboil=3005.0, tmelt=1726.0, density=8.91, 700 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d8 4s2', 701 oxistates='3, 2*, 0', 702 ionenergy=(7.6398, 18.168, 35.17, 54.9, 75.5, 703 108.0, 133.0, 162.0, 193.0, 224.5, 704 321.2, 352.0, 384.0, 430.0, 464.0, 705 499.0, 571.0, 607.2, 1547.0, ), 706 isotopes={58: Isotope(57.9353479, 0.680769, 58), 707 60: Isotope(59.9307906, 0.262231, 60), 708 61: Isotope(60.9310604, 0.011399, 61), 709 62: Isotope(61.9283488, 0.036345, 62), 710 64: Isotope(63.9279696, 0.009256, 64)}), 711 Element( 712 29, 'Cu', 'Copper', 713 group=11, period=4, block='d', series=8, 714 mass=63.546, eleneg=1.9, eleaffin=1.23578, 715 covrad=1.17, atmrad=1.57, vdwrad=1.4, 716 tboil=2840.0, tmelt=1356.6, density=8.92, 717 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d10 4s', 718 oxistates='2*, 1', 719 ionenergy=(7.7264, 20.292, 26.83, 55.2, 79.9, 720 103.0, 139.0, 166.0, 199.0, 232.0, 721 266.0, 368.8, 401.0, 435.0, 484.0, 722 520.0, 557.0, 633.0, 671.0, 1698.0, ), 723 isotopes={63: Isotope(62.9296011, 0.6917, 63), 724 65: Isotope(64.9277937, 0.3083, 65)}), 725 Element( 726 30, 'Zn', 'Zinc', 727 group=12, period=4, block='d', series=8, 728 mass=65.409, eleneg=1.65, eleaffin=0.0, 729 covrad=1.25, atmrad=1.53, vdwrad=1.39, 730 tboil=1180.0, tmelt=692.73, density=7.14, 731 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d10 4s2', 732 oxistates='2*', 733 ionenergy=(9.3942, 17.964, 39.722, 59.4, 82.6, 734 108.0, 134.0, 174.0, 203.0, 238.0, 735 274.0, 310.8, 419.7, 454.0, 490.0, 736 542.0, 579.0, 619.0, 698.8, 738.0, 737 1856.0, ), 738 isotopes={64: Isotope(63.9291466, 0.4863, 64), 739 66: Isotope(65.9260368, 0.279, 66), 740 67: Isotope(66.9271309, 0.041, 67), 741 68: Isotope(67.9248476, 0.1875, 68), 742 70: Isotope(69.925325, 0.0062, 70)}), 743 Element( 744 31, 'Ga', 'Gallium', 745 group=13, period=4, block='p', series=7, 746 mass=69.723, eleneg=1.81, eleaffin=0.41, 747 covrad=1.26, atmrad=1.81, vdwrad=1.87, 748 tboil=2478.0, tmelt=302.92, density=5.91, 749 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p', 750 oxistates='3*', 751 ionenergy=(5.9993, 20.51, 30.71, 64.0, ), 752 isotopes={69: Isotope(68.925581, 0.60108, 69), 753 71: Isotope(70.924705, 0.39892, 71)}), 754 Element( 755 32, 'Ge', 'Germanium', 756 group=14, period=4, block='p', series=5, 757 mass=72.64, eleneg=2.01, eleaffin=1.232712, 758 covrad=1.22, atmrad=1.52, vdwrad=0.0, 759 tboil=3107.0, tmelt=1211.5, density=5.32, 760 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2', 761 oxistates='4*', 762 ionenergy=(7.8994, 15.934, 34.22, 45.71, 93.5, ), 763 isotopes={70: Isotope(69.9242504, 0.2084, 70), 764 72: Isotope(71.9220762, 0.2754, 72), 765 73: Isotope(72.9234594, 0.0773, 73), 766 74: Isotope(73.9211782, 0.3628, 74), 767 76: Isotope(75.9214027, 0.0761, 76)}), 768 Element( 769 33, 'As', 'Arsenic', 770 group=15, period=4, block='p', series=5, 771 mass=74.9216, eleneg=2.18, eleaffin=0.814, 772 covrad=1.2, atmrad=1.33, vdwrad=1.85, 773 tboil=876.0, tmelt=1090.0, density=5.72, 774 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3', 775 oxistates='5, 3*, -3', 776 ionenergy=(9.7886, 18.633, 28.351, 50.13, 62.63, 777 127.6, ), 778 isotopes={75: Isotope(74.9215964, 1.0, 75)}), 779 Element( 780 34, 'Se', 'Selenium', 781 group=16, period=4, block='p', series=1, 782 mass=78.96, eleneg=2.55, eleaffin=2.02067, 783 covrad=1.16, atmrad=1.22, vdwrad=1.9, 784 tboil=958.0, tmelt=494.0, density=4.82, 785 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4', 786 oxistates='6, 4*, -2', 787 ionenergy=(9.7524, 21.9, 30.82, 42.944, 68.3, 788 81.7, 155.4, ), 789 isotopes={74: Isotope(73.9224766, 0.0089, 74), 790 76: Isotope(75.9192141, 0.0937, 76), 791 77: Isotope(76.9199146, 0.0763, 77), 792 78: Isotope(77.9173095, 0.2377, 78), 793 80: Isotope(79.9165218, 0.4961, 80), 794 82: Isotope(81.9167, 0.0873, 82)}), 795 Element( 796 35, 'Br', 'Bromine', 797 group=17, period=4, block='p', series=6, 798 mass=79.904, eleneg=2.96, eleaffin=3.363588, 799 covrad=1.14, atmrad=1.12, vdwrad=1.85, 800 tboil=331.85, tmelt=265.95, density=3.14, 801 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5', 802 oxistates='7, 5, 3, 1, -1*', 803 ionenergy=(11.8138, 21.8, 36.0, 47.3, 59.7, 804 88.6, 103.0, 192.8, ), 805 isotopes={79: Isotope(78.9183376, 0.5069, 79), 806 81: Isotope(80.916291, 0.4931, 81)}), 807 Element( 808 36, 'Kr', 'Krypton', 809 group=18, period=4, block='p', series=2, 810 mass=83.798, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 811 covrad=1.12, atmrad=1.03, vdwrad=2.02, 812 tboil=120.85, tmelt=116.0, density=4.48, 813 eleconfig='[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6', 814 oxistates='2*', 815 ionenergy=(13.9996, 24.359, 36.95, 52.5, 64.7, 816 78.5, 110.0, 126.0, 230.39, ), 817 isotopes={78: Isotope(77.920386, 0.0035, 78), 818 80: Isotope(79.916378, 0.0228, 80), 819 82: Isotope(81.9134846, 0.1158, 82), 820 83: Isotope(82.914136, 0.1149, 83), 821 84: Isotope(83.911507, 0.57, 84), 822 86: Isotope(85.9106103, 0.173, 86)}), 823 Element( 824 37, 'Rb', 'Rubidium', 825 group=1, period=5, block='s', series=3, 826 mass=85.4678, eleneg=0.82, eleaffin=0.485916, 827 covrad=2.16, atmrad=2.98, vdwrad=0.0, 828 tboil=961.0, tmelt=312.63, density=1.53, 829 eleconfig='[Kr] 5s', 830 oxistates='1*', 831 ionenergy=(4.1771, 27.28, 40.0, 52.6, 71.0, 832 84.4, 99.2, 136.0, 150.0, 277.1, ), 833 isotopes={85: Isotope(84.9117893, 0.7217, 85), 834 87: Isotope(86.9091835, 0.2783, 87)}), 835 Element( 836 38, 'Sr', 'Strontium', 837 group=2, period=5, block='s', series=4, 838 mass=87.62, eleneg=0.95, eleaffin=0.05206, 839 covrad=1.91, atmrad=2.45, vdwrad=0.0, 840 tboil=1655.0, tmelt=1042.0, density=2.63, 841 eleconfig='[Kr] 5s2', 842 oxistates='2*', 843 ionenergy=(5.6949, 11.03, 43.6, 57.0, 71.6, 844 90.8, 106.0, 122.3, 162.0, 177.0, 845 324.1, ), 846 isotopes={84: Isotope(83.913425, 0.0056, 84), 847 86: Isotope(85.9092624, 0.0986, 86), 848 87: Isotope(86.9088793, 0.07, 87), 849 88: Isotope(87.9056143, 0.8258, 88)}), 850 Element( 851 39, 'Y', 'Yttrium', 852 group=3, period=5, block='d', series=8, 853 mass=88.90585, eleneg=1.22, eleaffin=0.307, 854 covrad=1.62, atmrad=2.27, vdwrad=0.0, 855 tboil=3611.0, tmelt=1795.0, density=4.47, 856 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d 5s2', 857 oxistates='3*', 858 ionenergy=(6.2173, 12.24, 20.52, 61.8, 77.0, 859 93.0, 116.0, 129.0, 146.52, 191.0, 860 206.0, 374.0, ), 861 isotopes={89: Isotope(88.9058479, 1.0, 89)}), 862 Element( 863 40, 'Zr', 'Zirconium', 864 group=4, period=5, block='d', series=8, 865 mass=91.224, eleneg=1.33, eleaffin=0.426, 866 covrad=1.45, atmrad=2.16, vdwrad=0.0, 867 tboil=4682.0, tmelt=2128.0, density=6.51, 868 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d2 5s2', 869 oxistates='4*', 870 ionenergy=(6.6339, 13.13, 22.99, 34.34, 81.5, ), 871 isotopes={90: Isotope(89.9047037, 0.5145, 90), 872 91: Isotope(90.905645, 0.1122, 91), 873 92: Isotope(91.9050401, 0.1715, 92), 874 94: Isotope(93.9063158, 0.1738, 94), 875 96: Isotope(95.908276, 0.028, 96)}), 876 Element( 877 41, 'Nb', 'Niobium', 878 group=5, period=5, block='d', series=8, 879 mass=92.90638, eleneg=1.6, eleaffin=0.893, 880 covrad=1.34, atmrad=2.08, vdwrad=0.0, 881 tboil=5015.0, tmelt=2742.0, density=8.58, 882 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d4 5s', 883 oxistates='5*, 3', 884 ionenergy=(6.7589, 14.32, 25.04, 38.3, 50.55, 885 102.6, 125.0, ), 886 isotopes={93: Isotope(92.9063775, 1.0, 93)}), 887 Element( 888 42, 'Mo', 'Molybdenum', 889 group=6, period=5, block='d', series=8, 890 mass=95.94, eleneg=2.16, eleaffin=0.7472, 891 covrad=1.3, atmrad=2.01, vdwrad=0.0, 892 tboil=4912.0, tmelt=2896.0, density=10.28, 893 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d5 5s', 894 oxistates='6*, 5, 4, 3, 2, 0', 895 ionenergy=(7.0924, 16.15, 27.16, 46.4, 61.2, 896 68.0, 126.8, 153.0, ), 897 isotopes={92: Isotope(91.90681, 0.1484, 92), 898 94: Isotope(93.9050876, 0.0925, 94), 899 95: Isotope(94.9058415, 0.1592, 95), 900 96: Isotope(95.9046789, 0.1668, 96), 901 97: Isotope(96.906021, 0.0955, 97), 902 98: Isotope(97.9054078, 0.2413, 98), 903 100: Isotope(99.907477, 0.0963, 100)}), 904 Element( 905 43, 'Tc', 'Technetium', 906 group=7, period=5, block='d', series=8, 907 mass=97.907216, eleneg=1.9, eleaffin=0.55, 908 covrad=1.27, atmrad=1.95, vdwrad=0.0, 909 tboil=4538.0, tmelt=2477.0, density=11.49, 910 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d5 5s2', 911 oxistates='7*', 912 ionenergy=(7.28, 15.26, 29.54, ), 913 isotopes={98: Isotope(97.907216, 1.0, 98)}), 914 Element( 915 44, 'Ru', 'Ruthenium', 916 group=8, period=5, block='d', series=8, 917 mass=101.07, eleneg=2.2, eleaffin=1.04638, 918 covrad=1.25, atmrad=1.89, vdwrad=0.0, 919 tboil=4425.0, tmelt=2610.0, density=12.45, 920 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d7 5s', 921 oxistates='8, 6, 4*, 3*, 2, 0, -2', 922 ionenergy=(7.3605, 16.76, 28.47, ), 923 isotopes={96: Isotope(95.907598, 0.0554, 96), 924 98: Isotope(97.905287, 0.0187, 98), 925 99: Isotope(98.9059393, 0.1276, 99), 926 100: Isotope(99.9042197, 0.126, 100), 927 101: Isotope(100.9055822, 0.1706, 101), 928 102: Isotope(101.9043495, 0.3155, 102), 929 104: Isotope(103.90543, 0.1862, 104)}), 930 Element( 931 45, 'Rh', 'Rhodium', 932 group=9, period=5, block='d', series=8, 933 mass=102.9055, eleneg=2.28, eleaffin=1.14289, 934 covrad=1.25, atmrad=1.83, vdwrad=0.0, 935 tboil=3970.0, tmelt=2236.0, density=12.41, 936 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d8 5s', 937 oxistates='5, 4, 3*, 1*, 2, 0', 938 ionenergy=(7.4589, 18.08, 31.06, ), 939 isotopes={103: Isotope(102.905504, 1.0, 103)}), 940 Element( 941 46, 'Pd', 'Palladium', 942 group=10, period=5, block='d', series=8, 943 mass=106.42, eleneg=2.2, eleaffin=0.56214, 944 covrad=1.28, atmrad=1.79, vdwrad=1.63, 945 tboil=3240.0, tmelt=1825.0, density=12.02, 946 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10', 947 oxistates='4, 2*, 0', 948 ionenergy=(8.3369, 19.43, 32.93, ), 949 isotopes={102: Isotope(101.905608, 0.0102, 102), 950 104: Isotope(103.904035, 0.1114, 104), 951 105: Isotope(104.905084, 0.2233, 105), 952 106: Isotope(105.903483, 0.2733, 106), 953 108: Isotope(107.903894, 0.2646, 108), 954 110: Isotope(109.905152, 0.1172, 110)}), 955 Element( 956 47, 'Ag', 'Silver', 957 group=11, period=5, block='d', series=8, 958 mass=107.8682, eleneg=1.93, eleaffin=1.30447, 959 covrad=1.34, atmrad=1.75, vdwrad=1.72, 960 tboil=2436.0, tmelt=1235.1, density=10.49, 961 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10 5s', 962 oxistates='2, 1*', 963 ionenergy=(7.5762, 21.49, 34.83, ), 964 isotopes={107: Isotope(106.905093, 0.51839, 107), 965 109: Isotope(108.904756, 0.48161, 109)}), 966 Element( 967 48, 'Cd', 'Cadmium', 968 group=12, period=5, block='d', series=8, 969 mass=112.411, eleneg=1.69, eleaffin=0.0, 970 covrad=1.48, atmrad=1.71, vdwrad=1.58, 971 tboil=1040.0, tmelt=594.26, density=8.64, 972 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10 5s2', 973 oxistates='2*', 974 ionenergy=(8.9938, 16.908, 37.48, ), 975 isotopes={106: Isotope(105.906458, 0.0125, 106), 976 108: Isotope(107.904183, 0.0089, 108), 977 110: Isotope(109.903006, 0.1249, 110), 978 111: Isotope(110.904182, 0.128, 111), 979 112: Isotope(111.9027572, 0.2413, 112), 980 113: Isotope(112.9044009, 0.1222, 113), 981 114: Isotope(113.9033581, 0.2873, 114), 982 116: Isotope(115.904755, 0.0749, 116)}), 983 Element( 984 49, 'In', 'Indium', 985 group=13, period=5, block='p', series=7, 986 mass=114.818, eleneg=1.78, eleaffin=0.404, 987 covrad=1.44, atmrad=2.0, vdwrad=1.93, 988 tboil=2350.0, tmelt=429.78, density=7.31, 989 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p', 990 oxistates='3*', 991 ionenergy=(5.7864, 18.869, 28.03, 28.03, ), 992 isotopes={113: Isotope(112.904061, 0.0429, 113), 993 115: Isotope(114.903878, 0.9571, 115)}), 994 Element( 995 50, 'Sn', 'Tin', 996 group=14, period=5, block='p', series=7, 997 mass=118.71, eleneg=1.96, eleaffin=1.112066, 998 covrad=1.41, atmrad=1.72, vdwrad=2.17, 999 tboil=2876.0, tmelt=505.12, density=7.29, 1000 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2', 1001 oxistates='4*, 2*', 1002 ionenergy=(7.3439, 14.632, 30.502, 40.734, 72.28, ), 1003 isotopes={112: Isotope(111.904821, 0.0097, 112), 1004 114: Isotope(113.902782, 0.0066, 114), 1005 115: Isotope(114.903346, 0.0034, 115), 1006 116: Isotope(115.901744, 0.1454, 116), 1007 117: Isotope(116.902954, 0.0768, 117), 1008 118: Isotope(117.901606, 0.2422, 118), 1009 119: Isotope(118.903309, 0.0859, 119), 1010 120: Isotope(119.9021966, 0.3258, 120), 1011 122: Isotope(121.9034401, 0.0463, 122), 1012 124: Isotope(123.9052746, 0.0579, 124)}), 1013 Element( 1014 51, 'Sb', 'Antimony', 1015 group=15, period=5, block='p', series=5, 1016 mass=121.76, eleneg=2.05, eleaffin=1.047401, 1017 covrad=1.4, atmrad=1.53, vdwrad=0.0, 1018 tboil=1860.0, tmelt=903.91, density=6.69, 1019 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3', 1020 oxistates='5, 3*, -3', 1021 ionenergy=(8.6084, 16.53, 25.3, 44.2, 56.0, 1022 108.0, ), 1023 isotopes={121: Isotope(120.903818, 0.5721, 121), 1024 123: Isotope(122.9042157, 0.4279, 123)}), 1025 Element( 1026 52, 'Te', 'Tellurium', 1027 group=16, period=5, block='p', series=5, 1028 mass=127.6, eleneg=2.1, eleaffin=1.970875, 1029 covrad=1.36, atmrad=1.42, vdwrad=2.06, 1030 tboil=1261.0, tmelt=722.72, density=6.25, 1031 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p4', 1032 oxistates='6, 4*, -2', 1033 ionenergy=(9.0096, 18.6, 27.96, 37.41, 58.75, 1034 70.7, 137.0, ), 1035 isotopes={120: Isotope(119.90402, 0.0009, 120), 1036 122: Isotope(121.9030471, 0.0255, 122), 1037 123: Isotope(122.904273, 0.0089, 123), 1038 124: Isotope(123.9028195, 0.0474, 124), 1039 125: Isotope(124.9044247, 0.0707, 125), 1040 126: Isotope(125.9033055, 0.1884, 126), 1041 128: Isotope(127.9044614, 0.3174, 128), 1042 130: Isotope(129.9062228, 0.3408, 130)}), 1043 Element( 1044 53, 'I', 'Iodine', 1045 group=17, period=5, block='p', series=6, 1046 mass=126.90447, eleneg=2.66, eleaffin=3.059038, 1047 covrad=1.33, atmrad=1.32, vdwrad=1.98, 1048 tboil=457.5, tmelt=386.7, density=4.94, 1049 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5', 1050 oxistates='7, 5, 1, -1*', 1051 ionenergy=(10.4513, 19.131, 33.0, ), 1052 isotopes={127: Isotope(126.904468, 1.0, 127)}), 1053 Element( 1054 54, 'Xe', 'Xenon', 1055 group=18, period=5, block='p', series=2, 1056 mass=131.293, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1057 covrad=1.31, atmrad=1.24, vdwrad=2.16, 1058 tboil=165.1, tmelt=161.39, density=4.49, 1059 eleconfig='[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6', 1060 oxistates='2, 4, 6', 1061 ionenergy=(12.1298, 21.21, 32.1, ), 1062 isotopes={124: Isotope(123.9058958, 0.0009, 124), 1063 126: Isotope(125.904269, 0.0009, 126), 1064 128: Isotope(127.9035304, 0.0192, 128), 1065 129: Isotope(128.9047795, 0.2644, 129), 1066 130: Isotope(129.9035079, 0.0408, 130), 1067 131: Isotope(130.9050819, 0.2118, 131), 1068 132: Isotope(131.9041545, 0.2689, 132), 1069 134: Isotope(133.9053945, 0.1044, 134), 1070 136: Isotope(135.90722, 0.0887, 136)}), 1071 Element( 1072 55, 'Cs', 'Caesium', 1073 group=1, period=6, block='s', series=3, 1074 mass=132.90545, eleneg=0.79, eleaffin=0.471626, 1075 covrad=2.35, atmrad=3.34, vdwrad=0.0, 1076 tboil=944.0, tmelt=301.54, density=1.9, 1077 eleconfig='[Xe] 6s', 1078 oxistates='1*', 1079 ionenergy=(3.8939, 25.1, ), 1080 isotopes={133: Isotope(132.905447, 1.0, 133)}), 1081 Element( 1082 56, 'Ba', 'Barium', 1083 group=2, period=6, block='s', series=4, 1084 mass=137.327, eleneg=0.89, eleaffin=0.14462, 1085 covrad=1.98, atmrad=2.78, vdwrad=0.0, 1086 tboil=2078.0, tmelt=1002.0, density=3.65, 1087 eleconfig='[Xe] 6s2', 1088 oxistates='2*', 1089 ionenergy=(5.2117, 100.004, ), 1090 isotopes={130: Isotope(129.90631, 0.00106, 130), 1091 132: Isotope(131.905056, 0.00101, 132), 1092 134: Isotope(133.904503, 0.02417, 134), 1093 135: Isotope(134.905683, 0.06592, 135), 1094 136: Isotope(135.90457, 0.07854, 136), 1095 137: Isotope(136.905821, 0.11232, 137), 1096 138: Isotope(137.905241, 0.71698, 138)}), 1097 Element( 1098 57, 'La', 'Lanthanum', 1099 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1100 mass=138.9055, eleneg=1.1, eleaffin=0.47, 1101 covrad=1.69, atmrad=2.74, vdwrad=0.0, 1102 tboil=3737.0, tmelt=1191.0, density=6.16, 1103 eleconfig='[Xe] 5d 6s2', 1104 oxistates='3*', 1105 ionenergy=(5.5769, 11.06, 19.175, ), 1106 isotopes={138: Isotope(137.907107, 0.0009, 138), 1107 139: Isotope(138.906348, 0.9991, 139)}), 1108 Element( 1109 58, 'Ce', 'Cerium', 1110 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1111 mass=140.116, eleneg=1.12, eleaffin=0.5, 1112 covrad=1.65, atmrad=2.7, vdwrad=0.0, 1113 tboil=3715.0, tmelt=1071.0, density=6.77, 1114 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f 5d 6s2', 1115 oxistates='4, 3*', 1116 ionenergy=(5.5387, 10.85, 20.2, 36.72, ), 1117 isotopes={136: Isotope(135.90714, 0.00185, 136), 1118 138: Isotope(137.905986, 0.00251, 138), 1119 140: Isotope(139.905434, 0.8845, 140), 1120 142: Isotope(141.90924, 0.11114, 142)}), 1121 Element( 1122 59, 'Pr', 'Praseodymium', 1123 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1124 mass=140.90765, eleneg=1.13, eleaffin=0.5, 1125 covrad=1.65, atmrad=2.67, vdwrad=0.0, 1126 tboil=3785.0, tmelt=1204.0, density=6.48, 1127 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f3 6s2', 1128 oxistates='4, 3*', 1129 ionenergy=(5.473, 10.55, 21.62, 38.95, 57.45, ), 1130 isotopes={141: Isotope(140.907648, 1.0, 141)}), 1131 Element( 1132 60, 'Nd', 'Neodymium', 1133 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1134 mass=144.24, eleneg=1.14, eleaffin=0.5, 1135 covrad=1.64, atmrad=2.64, vdwrad=0.0, 1136 tboil=3347.0, tmelt=1294.0, density=7.0, 1137 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f4 6s2', 1138 oxistates='3*', 1139 ionenergy=(5.525, 10.72, ), 1140 isotopes={142: Isotope(141.907719, 0.272, 142), 1141 143: Isotope(142.90981, 0.122, 143), 1142 144: Isotope(143.910083, 0.238, 144), 1143 145: Isotope(144.912569, 0.083, 145), 1144 146: Isotope(145.913112, 0.172, 146), 1145 148: Isotope(147.916889, 0.057, 148), 1146 150: Isotope(149.920887, 0.056, 150)}), 1147 Element( 1148 61, 'Pm', 'Promethium', 1149 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1150 mass=144.912744, eleneg=1.13, eleaffin=0.5, 1151 covrad=1.63, atmrad=2.62, vdwrad=0.0, 1152 tboil=3273.0, tmelt=1315.0, density=7.22, 1153 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f5 6s2', 1154 oxistates='3*', 1155 ionenergy=(5.582, 10.9, ), 1156 isotopes={145: Isotope(144.912744, 1.0, 145)}), 1157 Element( 1158 62, 'Sm', 'Samarium', 1159 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1160 mass=150.36, eleneg=1.17, eleaffin=0.5, 1161 covrad=1.62, atmrad=2.59, vdwrad=0.0, 1162 tboil=2067.0, tmelt=1347.0, density=7.54, 1163 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f6 6s2', 1164 oxistates='3*, 2', 1165 ionenergy=(5.6437, 11.07, ), 1166 isotopes={144: Isotope(143.911995, 0.0307, 144), 1167 147: Isotope(146.914893, 0.1499, 147), 1168 148: Isotope(147.914818, 0.1124, 148), 1169 149: Isotope(148.91718, 0.1382, 149), 1170 150: Isotope(149.917271, 0.0738, 150), 1171 152: Isotope(151.919728, 0.2675, 152), 1172 154: Isotope(153.922205, 0.2275, 154)}), 1173 Element( 1174 63, 'Eu', 'Europium', 1175 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1176 mass=151.964, eleneg=1.2, eleaffin=0.5, 1177 covrad=1.85, atmrad=2.56, vdwrad=0.0, 1178 tboil=1800.0, tmelt=1095.0, density=5.25, 1179 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f7 6s2', 1180 oxistates='3*, 2', 1181 ionenergy=(5.6704, 11.25, ), 1182 isotopes={151: Isotope(150.919846, 0.4781, 151), 1183 153: Isotope(152.921226, 0.5219, 153)}), 1184 Element( 1185 64, 'Gd', 'Gadolinium', 1186 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1187 mass=157.25, eleneg=1.2, eleaffin=0.5, 1188 covrad=1.61, atmrad=2.54, vdwrad=0.0, 1189 tboil=3545.0, tmelt=1585.0, density=7.89, 1190 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f7 5d 6s2', 1191 oxistates='3*', 1192 ionenergy=(6.1498, 12.1, ), 1193 isotopes={152: Isotope(151.919788, 0.002, 152), 1194 154: Isotope(153.920862, 0.0218, 154), 1195 155: Isotope(154.922619, 0.148, 155), 1196 156: Isotope(155.92212, 0.2047, 156), 1197 157: Isotope(156.923957, 0.1565, 157), 1198 158: Isotope(157.924101, 0.2484, 158), 1199 160: Isotope(159.927051, 0.2186, 160)}), 1200 Element( 1201 65, 'Tb', 'Terbium', 1202 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1203 mass=158.92534, eleneg=1.2, eleaffin=0.5, 1204 covrad=1.59, atmrad=2.51, vdwrad=0.0, 1205 tboil=3500.0, tmelt=1629.0, density=8.25, 1206 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f9 6s2', 1207 oxistates='4, 3*', 1208 ionenergy=(5.8638, 11.52, ), 1209 isotopes={159: Isotope(158.925343, 1.0, 159)}), 1210 Element( 1211 66, 'Dy', 'Dysprosium', 1212 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1213 mass=162.5, eleneg=1.22, eleaffin=0.5, 1214 covrad=1.59, atmrad=2.49, vdwrad=0.0, 1215 tboil=2840.0, tmelt=1685.0, density=8.56, 1216 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f10 6s2', 1217 oxistates='3*', 1218 ionenergy=(5.9389, 11.67, ), 1219 isotopes={156: Isotope(155.924278, 0.0006, 156), 1220 158: Isotope(157.924405, 0.001, 158), 1221 160: Isotope(159.925194, 0.0234, 160), 1222 161: Isotope(160.92693, 0.1891, 161), 1223 162: Isotope(161.926795, 0.2551, 162), 1224 163: Isotope(162.928728, 0.249, 163), 1225 164: Isotope(163.929171, 0.2818, 164)}), 1226 Element( 1227 67, 'Ho', 'Holmium', 1228 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1229 mass=164.93032, eleneg=1.23, eleaffin=0.5, 1230 covrad=1.58, atmrad=2.47, vdwrad=0.0, 1231 tboil=2968.0, tmelt=1747.0, density=8.78, 1232 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f11 6s2', 1233 oxistates='3*', 1234 ionenergy=(6.0215, 11.8, ), 1235 isotopes={165: Isotope(164.930319, 1.0, 165)}), 1236 Element( 1237 68, 'Er', 'Erbium', 1238 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1239 mass=167.259, eleneg=1.24, eleaffin=0.5, 1240 covrad=1.57, atmrad=2.45, vdwrad=0.0, 1241 tboil=3140.0, tmelt=1802.0, density=9.05, 1242 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f12 6s2', 1243 oxistates='3*', 1244 ionenergy=(6.1077, 11.93, ), 1245 isotopes={162: Isotope(161.928775, 0.0014, 162), 1246 164: Isotope(163.929197, 0.0161, 164), 1247 166: Isotope(165.93029, 0.3361, 166), 1248 167: Isotope(166.932045, 0.2293, 167), 1249 168: Isotope(167.932368, 0.2678, 168), 1250 170: Isotope(169.93546, 0.1493, 170)}), 1251 Element( 1252 69, 'Tm', 'Thulium', 1253 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1254 mass=168.93421, eleneg=1.25, eleaffin=0.5, 1255 covrad=1.56, atmrad=2.42, vdwrad=0.0, 1256 tboil=2223.0, tmelt=1818.0, density=9.32, 1257 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f13 6s2', 1258 oxistates='3*, 2', 1259 ionenergy=(6.1843, 12.05, 23.71, ), 1260 isotopes={169: Isotope(168.934211, 1.0, 169)}), 1261 Element( 1262 70, 'Yb', 'Ytterbium', 1263 group=3, period=6, block='f', series=9, 1264 mass=173.04, eleneg=1.1, eleaffin=0.5, 1265 covrad=1.74, atmrad=2.4, vdwrad=0.0, 1266 tboil=1469.0, tmelt=1092.0, density=9.32, 1267 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 6s2', 1268 oxistates='3*, 2', 1269 ionenergy=(6.2542, 12.17, 25.2, ), 1270 isotopes={168: Isotope(167.933894, 0.0013, 168), 1271 170: Isotope(169.934759, 0.0304, 170), 1272 171: Isotope(170.936322, 0.1428, 171), 1273 172: Isotope(171.9363777, 0.2183, 172), 1274 173: Isotope(172.9382068, 0.1613, 173), 1275 174: Isotope(173.9388581, 0.3183, 174), 1276 176: Isotope(175.942568, 0.1276, 176)}), 1277 Element( 1278 71, 'Lu', 'Lutetium', 1279 group=3, period=6, block='d', series=9, 1280 mass=174.967, eleneg=1.27, eleaffin=0.5, 1281 covrad=1.56, atmrad=2.25, vdwrad=0.0, 1282 tboil=3668.0, tmelt=1936.0, density=9.84, 1283 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d 6s2', 1284 oxistates='3*', 1285 ionenergy=(5.4259, 13.9, ), 1286 isotopes={175: Isotope(174.9407679, 0.9741, 175), 1287 176: Isotope(175.9426824, 0.0259, 176)}), 1288 Element( 1289 72, 'Hf', 'Hafnium', 1290 group=4, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1291 mass=178.49, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1292 covrad=1.44, atmrad=2.16, vdwrad=0.0, 1293 tboil=4875.0, tmelt=2504.0, density=13.31, 1294 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d2 6s2', 1295 oxistates='4*', 1296 ionenergy=(6.8251, 14.9, 23.3, 33.3, ), 1297 isotopes={174: Isotope(173.94004, 0.0016, 174), 1298 176: Isotope(175.9414018, 0.0526, 176), 1299 177: Isotope(176.94322, 0.186, 177), 1300 178: Isotope(177.9436977, 0.2728, 178), 1301 179: Isotope(178.9458151, 0.1362, 179), 1302 180: Isotope(179.9465488, 0.3508, 180)}), 1303 Element( 1304 73, 'Ta', 'Tantalum', 1305 group=5, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1306 mass=180.9479, eleneg=1.5, eleaffin=0.322, 1307 covrad=1.34, atmrad=2.09, vdwrad=0.0, 1308 tboil=5730.0, tmelt=3293.0, density=16.68, 1309 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d3 6s2', 1310 oxistates='5*', 1311 ionenergy=(7.5496, ), 1312 isotopes={180: Isotope(179.947466, 0.00012, 180), 1313 181: Isotope(180.947996, 0.99988, 181)}), 1314 Element( 1315 74, 'W', 'Tungsten', 1316 group=6, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1317 mass=183.84, eleneg=2.36, eleaffin=0.815, 1318 covrad=1.3, atmrad=2.02, vdwrad=0.0, 1319 tboil=5825.0, tmelt=3695.0, density=19.26, 1320 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2', 1321 oxistates='6*, 5, 4, 3, 2, 0', 1322 ionenergy=(7.864, ), 1323 isotopes={180: Isotope(179.946706, 0.0012, 180), 1324 182: Isotope(181.948206, 0.265, 182), 1325 183: Isotope(182.9502245, 0.1431, 183), 1326 184: Isotope(183.9509326, 0.3064, 184), 1327 186: Isotope(185.954362, 0.2843, 186)}), 1328 Element( 1329 75, 'Re', 'Rhenium', 1330 group=7, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1331 mass=186.207, eleneg=1.9, eleaffin=0.15, 1332 covrad=1.28, atmrad=1.97, vdwrad=0.0, 1333 tboil=5870.0, tmelt=3455.0, density=21.03, 1334 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d5 6s2', 1335 oxistates='7, 6, 4, 2, -1', 1336 ionenergy=(7.8335, ), 1337 isotopes={185: Isotope(184.9529557, 0.374, 185), 1338 187: Isotope(186.9557508, 0.626, 187)}), 1339 Element( 1340 76, 'Os', 'Osmium', 1341 group=8, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1342 mass=190.23, eleneg=2.2, eleaffin=1.0778, 1343 covrad=1.26, atmrad=1.92, vdwrad=0.0, 1344 tboil=5300.0, tmelt=3300.0, density=22.61, 1345 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2', 1346 oxistates='8, 6, 4*, 3, 2, 0, -2', 1347 ionenergy=(8.4382, ), 1348 isotopes={184: Isotope(183.952491, 0.0002, 184), 1349 186: Isotope(185.953838, 0.0159, 186), 1350 187: Isotope(186.9557479, 0.0196, 187), 1351 188: Isotope(187.955836, 0.1324, 188), 1352 189: Isotope(188.9581449, 0.1615, 189), 1353 190: Isotope(189.958445, 0.2626, 190), 1354 192: Isotope(191.961479, 0.4078, 192)}), 1355 Element( 1356 77, 'Ir', 'Iridium', 1357 group=9, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1358 mass=192.217, eleneg=2.2, eleaffin=1.56436, 1359 covrad=1.27, atmrad=1.87, vdwrad=0.0, 1360 tboil=4700.0, tmelt=2720.0, density=22.65, 1361 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d7 6s2', 1362 oxistates='6, 4*, 3, 2, 1*, 0, -1', 1363 ionenergy=(8.967, ), 1364 isotopes={191: Isotope(190.960591, 0.373, 191), 1365 193: Isotope(192.962924, 0.627, 193)}), 1366 Element( 1367 78, 'Pt', 'Platinum', 1368 group=10, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1369 mass=195.078, eleneg=2.28, eleaffin=2.1251, 1370 covrad=1.3, atmrad=1.83, vdwrad=1.75, 1371 tboil=4100.0, tmelt=2042.1, density=21.45, 1372 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s', 1373 oxistates='4*, 2*, 0', 1374 ionenergy=(8.9588, 18.563, ), 1375 isotopes={190: Isotope(189.95993, 0.00014, 190), 1376 192: Isotope(191.961035, 0.00782, 192), 1377 194: Isotope(193.962664, 0.32967, 194), 1378 195: Isotope(194.964774, 0.33832, 195), 1379 196: Isotope(195.964935, 0.25242, 196), 1380 198: Isotope(197.967876, 0.07163, 198)}), 1381 Element( 1382 79, 'Au', 'Gold', 1383 group=11, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1384 mass=196.96655, eleneg=2.54, eleaffin=2.30861, 1385 covrad=1.34, atmrad=1.79, vdwrad=1.66, 1386 tboil=3130.0, tmelt=1337.58, density=19.32, 1387 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s', 1388 oxistates='3*, 1', 1389 ionenergy=(9.2255, 20.5, ), 1390 isotopes={197: Isotope(196.966552, 1.0, 197)}), 1391 Element( 1392 80, 'Hg', 'Mercury', 1393 group=12, period=6, block='d', series=8, 1394 mass=200.59, eleneg=2.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1395 covrad=1.49, atmrad=1.76, vdwrad=0.0, 1396 tboil=629.88, tmelt=234.31, density=13.55, 1397 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2', 1398 oxistates='2*, 1', 1399 ionenergy=(10.4375, 18.756, 34.2, ), 1400 isotopes={196: Isotope(195.965815, 0.0015, 196), 1401 198: Isotope(197.966752, 0.0997, 198), 1402 199: Isotope(198.968262, 0.1687, 199), 1403 200: Isotope(199.968309, 0.231, 200), 1404 201: Isotope(200.970285, 0.1318, 201), 1405 202: Isotope(201.970626, 0.2986, 202), 1406 204: Isotope(203.973476, 0.0687, 204)}), 1407 Element( 1408 81, 'Tl', 'Thallium', 1409 group=13, period=6, block='p', series=7, 1410 mass=204.3833, eleneg=2.04, eleaffin=0.377, 1411 covrad=1.48, atmrad=2.08, vdwrad=1.96, 1412 tboil=1746.0, tmelt=577.0, density=11.85, 1413 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p', 1414 oxistates='3, 1*', 1415 ionenergy=(6.1082, 20.428, 29.83, ), 1416 isotopes={203: Isotope(202.972329, 0.29524, 203), 1417 205: Isotope(204.974412, 0.70476, 205)}), 1418 Element( 1419 82, 'Pb', 'Lead', 1420 group=14, period=6, block='p', series=7, 1421 mass=207.2, eleneg=2.33, eleaffin=0.364, 1422 covrad=1.47, atmrad=1.81, vdwrad=2.02, 1423 tboil=2023.0, tmelt=600.65, density=11.34, 1424 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2', 1425 oxistates='4, 2*', 1426 ionenergy=(7.4167, 15.032, 31.937, 42.32, 68.8, ), 1427 isotopes={204: Isotope(203.973029, 0.014, 204), 1428 206: Isotope(205.974449, 0.241, 206), 1429 207: Isotope(206.975881, 0.221, 207), 1430 208: Isotope(207.976636, 0.524, 208)}), 1431 Element( 1432 83, 'Bi', 'Bismuth', 1433 group=15, period=6, block='p', series=7, 1434 mass=208.98038, eleneg=2.02, eleaffin=0.942363, 1435 covrad=1.46, atmrad=1.63, vdwrad=0.0, 1436 tboil=1837.0, tmelt=544.59, density=9.8, 1437 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3', 1438 oxistates='5, 3*', 1439 ionenergy=(7.2855, 16.69, 25.56, 45.3, 56.0, 1440 88.3, ), 1441 isotopes={209: Isotope(208.980383, 1.0, 209)}), 1442 Element( 1443 84, 'Po', 'Polonium', 1444 group=16, period=6, block='p', series=5, 1445 mass=208.982416, eleneg=2.0, eleaffin=1.9, 1446 covrad=1.46, atmrad=1.53, vdwrad=0.0, 1447 tboil=0.0, tmelt=527.0, density=9.2, 1448 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4', 1449 oxistates='6, 4*, 2', 1450 ionenergy=(8.414, ), 1451 isotopes={209: Isotope(208.982416, 1.0, 209)}), 1452 Element( 1453 85, 'At', 'Astatine', 1454 group=17, period=6, block='p', series=6, 1455 mass=209.9871, eleneg=2.2, eleaffin=2.8, 1456 covrad=1.45, atmrad=1.43, vdwrad=0.0, 1457 tboil=610.0, tmelt=575.0, density=0.0, 1458 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5', 1459 oxistates='7, 5, 3, 1, -1*', 1460 ionenergy=(), 1461 isotopes={210: Isotope(209.987131, 1.0, 210)}), 1462 Element( 1463 86, 'Rn', 'Radon', 1464 group=18, period=6, block='p', series=2, 1465 mass=222.0176, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1466 covrad=0.0, atmrad=1.34, vdwrad=0.0, 1467 tboil=211.4, tmelt=202.0, density=9.23, 1468 eleconfig='[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6', 1469 oxistates='2*', 1470 ionenergy=(10.7485, ), 1471 isotopes={222: Isotope(222.0175705, 1.0, 222)}), 1472 Element( 1473 87, 'Fr', 'Francium', 1474 group=1, period=7, block='s', series=3, 1475 mass=223.0197307, eleneg=0.7, eleaffin=0.0, 1476 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1477 tboil=950.0, tmelt=300.0, density=0.0, 1478 eleconfig='[Rn] 7s', 1479 oxistates='1*', 1480 ionenergy=(4.0727, ), 1481 isotopes={223: Isotope(223.0197307, 1.0, 223)}), 1482 Element( 1483 88, 'Ra', 'Radium', 1484 group=2, period=7, block='s', series=4, 1485 mass=226.025403, eleneg=0.9, eleaffin=0.0, 1486 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1487 tboil=1413.0, tmelt=973.0, density=5.5, 1488 eleconfig='[Rn] 7s2', 1489 oxistates='2*', 1490 ionenergy=(5.2784, 10.147, ), 1491 isotopes={226: Isotope(226.0254026, 1.0, 226)}), 1492 Element( 1493 89, 'Ac', 'Actinium', 1494 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1495 mass=227.027747, eleneg=1.1, eleaffin=0.0, 1496 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1497 tboil=3470.0, tmelt=1324.0, density=10.07, 1498 eleconfig='[Rn] 6d 7s2', 1499 oxistates='3*', 1500 ionenergy=(5.17, 12.1, ), 1501 isotopes={227: Isotope(227.027747, 1.0, 227)}), 1502 Element( 1503 90, 'Th', 'Thorium', 1504 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1505 mass=232.0381, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1506 covrad=1.65, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1507 tboil=5060.0, tmelt=2028.0, density=11.72, 1508 eleconfig='[Rn] 6d2 7s2', 1509 oxistates='4*', 1510 ionenergy=(6.3067, 11.5, 20.0, 28.8, ), 1511 isotopes={232: Isotope(232.0380504, 1.0, 232)}), 1512 Element( 1513 91, 'Pa', 'Protactinium', 1514 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1515 mass=231.03588, eleneg=1.5, eleaffin=0.0, 1516 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1517 tboil=4300.0, tmelt=1845.0, density=15.37, 1518 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f2 6d 7s2', 1519 oxistates='5*, 4', 1520 ionenergy=(5.89, ), 1521 isotopes={231: Isotope(231.0358789, 1.0, 231)}), 1522 Element( 1523 92, 'U', 'Uranium', 1524 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1525 mass=238.02891, eleneg=1.38, eleaffin=0.0, 1526 covrad=1.42, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=1.86, 1527 tboil=4407.0, tmelt=1408.0, density=18.97, 1528 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f3 6d 7s2', 1529 oxistates='6*, 5, 4, 3', 1530 ionenergy=(6.1941, ), 1531 isotopes={234: Isotope(234.0409456, 5.5e-05, 234), 1532 235: Isotope(235.0439231, 0.0072, 235), 1533 238: Isotope(238.0507826, 0.992745, 238)}), 1534 Element( 1535 93, 'Np', 'Neptunium', 1536 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1537 mass=237.048167, eleneg=1.36, eleaffin=0.0, 1538 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1539 tboil=4175.0, tmelt=912.0, density=20.48, 1540 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f4 6d 7s2', 1541 oxistates='6, 5*, 4, 3', 1542 ionenergy=(6.2657, ), 1543 isotopes={237: Isotope(237.0481673, 1.0, 237)}), 1544 Element( 1545 94, 'Pu', 'Plutonium', 1546 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1547 mass=244.064198, eleneg=1.28, eleaffin=0.0, 1548 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1549 tboil=3505.0, tmelt=913.0, density=19.74, 1550 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f6 7s2', 1551 oxistates='6, 5, 4*, 3', 1552 ionenergy=(6.026, ), 1553 isotopes={244: Isotope(244.064198, 1.0, 244)}), 1554 Element( 1555 95, 'Am', 'Americium', 1556 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1557 mass=243.061373, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1558 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1559 tboil=2880.0, tmelt=1449.0, density=13.67, 1560 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f7 7s2', 1561 oxistates='6, 5, 4, 3*', 1562 ionenergy=(5.9738, ), 1563 isotopes={243: Isotope(243.0613727, 1.0, 243)}), 1564 Element( 1565 96, 'Cm', 'Curium', 1566 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1567 mass=247.070347, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1568 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1569 tboil=0.0, tmelt=1620.0, density=13.51, 1570 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f7 6d 7s2', 1571 oxistates='4, 3*', 1572 ionenergy=(5.9914, ), 1573 isotopes={247: Isotope(247.070347, 1.0, 247)}), 1574 Element( 1575 97, 'Bk', 'Berkelium', 1576 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1577 mass=247.070299, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1578 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1579 tboil=0.0, tmelt=1258.0, density=13.25, 1580 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f9 7s2', 1581 oxistates='4, 3*', 1582 ionenergy=(6.1979, ), 1583 isotopes={247: Isotope(247.070299, 1.0, 247)}), 1584 Element( 1585 98, 'Cf', 'Californium', 1586 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1587 mass=251.07958, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1588 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1589 tboil=0.0, tmelt=1172.0, density=15.1, 1590 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f10 7s2', 1591 oxistates='4, 3*', 1592 ionenergy=(6.2817, ), 1593 isotopes={251: Isotope(251.07958, 1.0, 251)}), 1594 Element( 1595 99, 'Es', 'Einsteinium', 1596 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1597 mass=252.08297, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1598 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1599 tboil=0.0, tmelt=1130.0, density=0.0, 1600 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f11 7s2', 1601 oxistates='3*', 1602 ionenergy=(6.42, ), 1603 isotopes={252: Isotope(252.08297, 1.0, 252)}), 1604 Element( 1605 100, 'Fm', 'Fermium', 1606 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1607 mass=257.095099, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1608 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1609 tboil=0.0, tmelt=1800.0, density=0.0, 1610 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f12 7s2', 1611 oxistates='3*', 1612 ionenergy=(6.5, ), 1613 isotopes={257: Isotope(257.095099, 1.0, 257)}), 1614 Element( 1615 101, 'Md', 'Mendelevium', 1616 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1617 mass=258.098425, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1618 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1619 tboil=0.0, tmelt=1100.0, density=0.0, 1620 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f13 7s2', 1621 oxistates='3*', 1622 ionenergy=(6.58, ), 1623 isotopes={258: Isotope(258.098425, 1.0, 258)}), 1624 Element( 1625 102, 'No', 'Nobelium', 1626 group=3, period=7, block='f', series=10, 1627 mass=259.10102, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1628 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1629 tboil=0.0, tmelt=1100.0, density=0.0, 1630 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f14 7s2', 1631 oxistates='3, 2*', 1632 ionenergy=(6.65, ), 1633 isotopes={259: Isotope(259.10102, 1.0, 259)}), 1634 Element( 1635 103, 'Lr', 'Lawrencium', 1636 group=3, period=7, block='d', series=10, 1637 mass=262.10969, eleneg=1.3, eleaffin=0.0, 1638 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1639 tboil=0.0, tmelt=1900.0, density=0.0, 1640 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f14 6d 7s2', 1641 oxistates='3*', 1642 ionenergy=(4.9, ), 1643 isotopes={262: Isotope(262.10969, 1.0, 262)}), 1644 Element( 1645 104, 'Rf', 'Rutherfordium', 1646 group=4, period=7, block='d', series=8, 1647 mass=261.10875, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1648 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1649 tboil=0.0, tmelt=0.0, density=0.0, 1650 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f14 6d2 7s2', 1651 oxistates='*', 1652 ionenergy=(6.0, ), 1653 isotopes={261: Isotope(261.10875, 1.0, 261)}), 1654 Element( 1655 105, 'Db', 'Dubnium', 1656 group=5, period=7, block='d', series=8, 1657 mass=262.11415, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1658 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1659 tboil=0.0, tmelt=0.0, density=0.0, 1660 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f14 6d3 7s2', 1661 oxistates='*', 1662 ionenergy=(), 1663 isotopes={262: Isotope(262.11415, 1.0, 262)}), 1664 Element( 1665 106, 'Sg', 'Seaborgium', 1666 group=6, period=7, block='d', series=8, 1667 mass=266.12193, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1668 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1669 tboil=0.0, tmelt=0.0, density=0.0, 1670 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f14 6d4 7s2', 1671 oxistates='*', 1672 ionenergy=(), 1673 isotopes={266: Isotope(266.12193, 1.0, 266)}), 1674 Element( 1675 107, 'Bh', 'Bohrium', 1676 group=7, period=7, block='d', series=8, 1677 mass=264.12473, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1678 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1679 tboil=0.0, tmelt=0.0, density=0.0, 1680 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f14 6d5 7s2', 1681 oxistates='*', 1682 ionenergy=(), 1683 isotopes={264: Isotope(264.12473, 1.0, 264)}), 1684 Element( 1685 108, 'Hs', 'Hassium', 1686 group=8, period=7, block='d', series=8, 1687 mass=269.13411, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1688 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1689 tboil=0.0, tmelt=0.0, density=0.0, 1690 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f14 6d6 7s2', 1691 oxistates='*', 1692 ionenergy=(), 1693 isotopes={269: Isotope(269.13411, 1.0, 269)}), 1694 Element( 1695 109, 'Mt', 'Meitnerium', 1696 group=9, period=7, block='d', series=8, 1697 mass=268.13882, eleneg=0.0, eleaffin=0.0, 1698 covrad=0.0, atmrad=0.0, vdwrad=0.0, 1699 tboil=0.0, tmelt=0.0, density=0.0, 1700 eleconfig='[Rn] 5f14 6d7 7s2', 1701 oxistates='*', 1702 ionenergy=(), 1703 isotopes={268: Isotope(268.13882, 1.0, 268)})) 1704 1705 1706PERIODS = {1: 'K', 2: 'L', 3: 'M', 4: 'N', 5: 'O', 6: 'P', 7: 'Q'} 1707 1708BLOCKS = {'s': '', 'g': '', 'f': '', 'd': '', 'p': ''} 1709 1710GROUPS = { 1711 1: ('IA', 'Alkali metals'), 1712 2: ('IIA', 'Alkaline earths'), 1713 3: ('IIIB', ''), 1714 4: ('IVB', ''), 1715 5: ('VB', ''), 1716 6: ('VIB', ''), 1717 7: ('VIIB', ''), 1718 8: ('VIIIB', ''), 1719 9: ('VIIIB', ''), 1720 10: ('VIIIB', ''), 1721 11: ('IB', 'Coinage metals'), 1722 12: ('IIB', ''), 1723 13: ('IIIA', 'Boron group'), 1724 14: ('IVA', 'Carbon group'), 1725 15: ('VA', 'Pnictogens'), 1726 16: ('VIA', 'Chalcogens'), 1727 17: ('VIIA', 'Halogens'), 1728 18: ('VIIIA', 'Noble gases')} 1729 1730SERIES = { 1731 1: 'Nonmetals', 1732 2: 'Noble gases', 1733 3: 'Alkali metals', 1734 4: 'Alkaline earth metals', 1735 5: 'Metalloids', 1736 6: 'Halogens', 1737 7: 'Poor metals', 1738 8: 'Transition metals', 1739 9: 'Lanthanides', 1740 10: 'Actinides'} 1741 1742 1743def _descriptions(symbol): 1744 """Delay load descriptions.""" 1745 e = ELEMENTS 1746 e['H'].description = ( 1747 "Colourless, odourless gaseous chemical element. Lightest and " 1748 "most abundant element in the universe. Present in water and in " 1749 "all organic compounds. Chemically reacts with most elements. " 1750 "Discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1776.") 1751 e['He'].description = ( 1752 "Colourless, odourless gaseous nonmetallic element. Belongs to " 1753 "group 18 of the periodic table. Lowest boiling point of all " 1754 "elements and can only be solidified under pressure. Chemically " 1755 "inert, no known compounds. Discovered in the solar spectrum in " 1756 "1868 by Lockyer.") 1757 e['Li'].description = ( 1758 "Socket silvery metal. First member of group 1 of the periodic " 1759 "table. Lithium salts are used in psychomedicine.") 1760 e['Be'].description = ( 1761 "Grey metallic element of group 2 of the periodic table. Is toxic " 1762 "and can cause severe lung diseases and dermatitis. Shows high " 1763 "covalent character. It was isolated independently by F. Wohler " 1764 "and A.A. Bussy in 1828.") 1765 e['B'].description = ( 1766 "An element of group 13 of the periodic table. There are two " 1767 "allotropes, amorphous boron is a brown power, but metallic boron " 1768 "is black. The metallic form is hard (9.3 on Mohs' scale) and a " 1769 "bad conductor in room temperatures. It is never found free in " 1770 "nature. Boron-10 is used in nuclear reactor control rods and " 1771 "shields. It was discovered in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy and by " 1772 "J.L. Gay-Lussac and L.J. Thenard.") 1773 e['C'].description = ( 1774 "Carbon is a member of group 14 of the periodic table. It has " 1775 "three allotropic forms of it, diamonds, graphite and fullerite. " 1776 "Carbon-14 is commonly used in radioactive dating. Carbon occurs " 1777 "in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon " 1778 "has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with " 1779 "itself, and a wide variety of other elements.") 1780 e['N'].description = ( 1781 "Colourless, gaseous element which belongs to group 15 of the " 1782 "periodic table. Constitutes ~78% of the atmosphere and is an " 1783 "essential part of the ecosystem. Nitrogen for industrial purposes " 1784 "is acquired by the fractional distillation of liquid air. " 1785 "Chemically inactive, reactive generally only at high temperatures " 1786 "or in electrical discharges. It was discovered in 1772 by D. " 1787 "Rutherford.") 1788 e['O'].description = ( 1789 "A colourless, odourless gaseous element belonging to group 16 of " 1790 "the periodic table. It is the most abundant element present in " 1791 "the earth's crust. It also makes up 20.8% of the Earth's " 1792 "atmosphere. For industrial purposes, it is separated from liquid " 1793 "air by fractional distillation. It is used in high temperature " 1794 "welding, and in breathing. It commonly comes in the form of " 1795 "Oxygen, but is found as Ozone in the upper atmosphere. It was " 1796 "discovered by Priestley in 1774.") 1797 e['F'].description = ( 1798 "A poisonous pale yellow gaseous element belonging to group 17 of " 1799 "the periodic table (The halogens). It is the most chemically " 1800 "reactive and electronegative element. It is highly dangerous, " 1801 "causing severe chemical burns on contact with flesh. Fluorine was " 1802 "identified by Scheele in 1771 and first isolated by Moissan in " 1803 "1886.") 1804 e['Ne'].description = ( 1805 "Colourless gaseous element of group 18 on the periodic table " 1806 "(noble gases). Neon occurs in the atmosphere, and comprises " 1807 "0.0018% of the volume of the atmosphere. It has a distinct " 1808 "reddish glow when used in discharge tubes and neon based lamps. " 1809 "It forms almost no chemical compounds. Neon was discovered in " 1810 "1898 by Sir William Ramsey and M.W. Travers.") 1811 e['Na'].description = ( 1812 "Soft silvery reactive element belonging to group 1 of the " 1813 "periodic table (alkali metals). It is highly reactive, oxidizing " 1814 "in air and reacting violently with water, forcing it to be kept " 1815 "under oil. It was first isolated by Humphrey Davy in 1807.") 1816 e['Mg'].description = ( 1817 "Silvery metallic element belonging to group 2 of the periodic " 1818 "table (alkaline-earth metals). It is essential for living " 1819 "organisms, and is used in a number of light alloys. Chemically " 1820 "very reactive, it forms a protective oxide coating when exposed " 1821 "to air and burns with an intense white flame. It also reacts with " 1822 "sulphur, nitrogen and the halogens. First isolated by Bussy in " 1823 "1828.") 1824 e['Al'].description = ( 1825 "Silvery-white lustrous metallic element of group 3 of the " 1826 "periodic table. Highly reactive but protected by a thin " 1827 "transparent layer of the oxide which quickly forms in air. There " 1828 "are many alloys of aluminum, as well as a good number of " 1829 "industrial uses. Makes up 8.1% of the Earth's crust, by weight. " 1830 "Isolated in 1825 by H.C. Oersted.") 1831 e['Si'].description = ( 1832 "Metalloid element belonging to group 14 of the periodic table. " 1833 "It is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust, " 1834 "making up 25.7% of it by weight. Chemically less reactive than " 1835 "carbon. First identified by Lavoisier in 1787 and first isolated " 1836 "in 1823 by Berzelius.") 1837 e['P'].description = ( 1838 "Non-metallic element belonging to group 15 of the periodic " 1839 "table. Has a multiple allotropic forms. Essential element for " 1840 "living organisms. It was discovered by Brandt in 1669.") 1841 e['S'].description = ( 1842 "Yellow, nonmetallic element belonging to group 16 of the " 1843 "periodic table. It is an essential element in living organisms, " 1844 "needed in the amino acids cysteine and methionine, and hence in " 1845 "many proteins. Absorbed by plants from the soil as sulphate ion.") 1846 e['Cl'].description = ( 1847 "Halogen element. Poisonous greenish-yellow gas. Occurs widely in " 1848 "nature as sodium chloride in seawater. Reacts directly with many " 1849 "elements and compounds, strong oxidizing agent. Discovered by " 1850 "Karl Scheele in 1774. Humphrey David confirmed it as an element " 1851 "in 1810.") 1852 e['Ar'].description = ( 1853 "Monatomic noble gas. Makes up 0.93% of the air. Colourless, " 1854 "odorless. Is inert and has no true compounds. Lord Rayleigh and " 1855 "Sir william Ramsey identified argon in 1894.") 1856 e['K'].description = ( 1857 "Soft silvery metallic element belonging to group 1 of the " 1858 "periodic table (alkali metals). Occurs naturally in seawater and " 1859 "a many minerals. Highly reactive, chemically, it resembles sodium " 1860 "in its behavior and compounds. Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in " 1861 "1807.") 1862 e['Ca'].description = ( 1863 "Soft grey metallic element belonging to group 2 of the periodic " 1864 "table. Used a reducing agent in the extraction of thorium, " 1865 "zirconium and uranium. Essential element for living organisms.") 1866 e['Sc'].description = ( 1867 "Rare soft silvery metallic element belonging to group 3 of the " 1868 "periodic table. There are ten isotopes, nine of which are " 1869 "radioactive and have short half-lives. Predicted in 1869 by " 1870 "Mendeleev, isolated by Nilson in 1879.") 1871 e['Ti'].description = ( 1872 "White metallic transition element. Occurs in numerous minerals. " 1873 "Used in strong, light corrosion-resistant alloys. Forms a passive " 1874 "oxide coating when exposed to air. First discovered by Gregor in " 1875 "1789.") 1876 e['V'].description = ( 1877 "Soft and ductile, bright white metal. Good resistance to " 1878 "corrosion by alkalis, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid. It " 1879 "oxidizes readily about 933K. There are two naturally occurring " 1880 "isotopes of vanadium, and 5 radioisotopes, V-49 having the " 1881 "longest half-life at 337 days. Vanadium has nuclear applications, " 1882 "the foil is used in cladding titanium to steel, and " 1883 "vanadium-gallium tape is used to produce a superconductive " 1884 "magnet. Originally discovered by Andres Manuel del Rio of Mexico " 1885 "City in 1801. His discovery went unheeded, however, and in 1820, " 1886 "Nils Gabriel Sefstron of Sweden rediscovered it. Metallic " 1887 "vanadium was isolated by Henry Enfield Roscoe in 1867. The name " 1888 "vanadium comes from Vanadis, a goddess of Scandinavian mythology. " 1889 "Silvery-white metallic transition element. Vanadium is essential " 1890 "to Ascidians. Rats and chickens are also known to require it. " 1891 "Metal powder is a fire hazard, and vanadium compounds should be " 1892 "considered highly toxic. May cause lung cancer if inhaled.") 1893 e['Cr'].description = ( 1894 "Hard silvery transition element. Used in decorative " 1895 "electroplating. Discovered in 1797 by Vauquelin.") 1896 e['Mn'].description = ( 1897 "Grey brittle metallic transition element. Rather " 1898 "electropositive, combines with some non-metals when heated. " 1899 "Discovered in 1774 by Scheele.") 1900 e['Fe'].description = ( 1901 "Silvery malleable and ductile metallic transition element. Has " 1902 "nine isotopes and is the fourth most abundant element in the " 1903 "earth's crust. Required by living organisms as a trace element " 1904 "(used in hemoglobin in humans.) Quite reactive, oxidizes in moist " 1905 "air, displaces hydrogen from dilute acids and combines with " 1906 "nonmetallic elements.") 1907 e['Co'].description = ( 1908 "Light grey transition element. Some meteorites contain small " 1909 "amounts of metallic cobalt. Generally alloyed for use. Mammals " 1910 "require small amounts of cobalt salts. Cobalt-60, an artificially " 1911 "produced radioactive isotope of Cobalt is an important " 1912 "radioactive tracer and cancer-treatment agent. Discovered by G. " 1913 "Brandt in 1737.") 1914 e['Ni'].description = ( 1915 "Malleable ductile silvery metallic transition element. " 1916 "Discovered by A.F. Cronstedt in 1751.") 1917 e['Cu'].description = ( 1918 "Red-brown transition element. Known by the Romans as 'cuprum.' " 1919 "Extracted and used for thousands of years. Malleable, ductile and " 1920 "an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. When in moist " 1921 "conditions, a greenish layer forms on the outside.") 1922 e['Zn'].description = ( 1923 "Blue-white metallic element. Occurs in multiple compounds " 1924 "naturally. Five stable isotopes are six radioactive isotopes have " 1925 "been found. Chemically a reactive metal, combines with oxygen and " 1926 "other non-metals, reacts with dilute acids to release hydrogen.") 1927 e['Ga'].description = ( 1928 "Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to group 13 of the " 1929 "periodic table. The two stable isotopes are Ga-69 and Ga-71. " 1930 "Eight radioactive isotopes are known, all having short " 1931 "half-lives. Gallium Arsenide is used as a semiconductor. Corrodes " 1932 "most other metals by diffusing into their lattice. First " 1933 "identified by Francois Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875.") 1934 e['Ge'].description = ( 1935 "Lustrous hard metalloid element, belongs to group 14 of the " 1936 "periodic table. Forms a large number of organometallic compounds. " 1937 "Predicted by Mendeleev in 1871, it was actually found in 1886 by " 1938 "Winkler.") 1939 e['As'].description = ( 1940 "Metalloid element of group 15. There are three allotropes, " 1941 "yellow, black, and grey. Reacts with halogens, concentrated " 1942 "oxidizing acids and hot alkalis. Albertus Magnus is believed to " 1943 "have been the first to isolate the element in 1250.") 1944 e['Se'].description = ( 1945 "Metalloid element, belongs to group 16 of the periodic table. " 1946 "Multiple allotropic forms exist. Chemically resembles sulphur. " 1947 "Discovered in 1817 by Jons J. Berzelius.") 1948 e['Br'].description = ( 1949 "Halogen element. Red volatile liquid at room temperature. Its " 1950 "reactivity is somewhere between chlorine and iodine. Harmful to " 1951 "human tissue in a liquid state, the vapour irritates eyes and " 1952 "throat. Discovered in 1826 by Antoine Balard.") 1953 e['Kr'].description = ( 1954 "Colorless gaseous element, belongs to the noble gases. Occurs in " 1955 "the air, 0.0001% by volume. It can be extracted from liquid air " 1956 "by fractional distillation. Generally not isolated, but used with " 1957 "other inert gases in fluorescent lamps. Five natural isotopes, " 1958 "and five radioactive isotopes. Kr-85, the most stable radioactive " 1959 "isotope, has a half-life of 10.76 years and is produced in " 1960 "fission reactors. Practically inert, though known to form " 1961 "compounds with Fluorine.") 1962 e['Rb'].description = ( 1963 "Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to group 1 of the " 1964 "periodic table. Rb-97, the naturally occurring isotope, is " 1965 "radioactive. It is highly reactive, with properties similar to " 1966 "other elements in group 1, like igniting spontaneously in air. " 1967 "Discovered spectroscopically in 1861 by W. Bunsen and G.R. " 1968 "Kirchoff.") 1969 e['Sr'].description = ( 1970 "Soft yellowish metallic element, belongs to group 2 of the " 1971 "periodic table. Highly reactive chemically. Sr-90 is present in " 1972 "radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28 years. Discovered " 1973 "in 1798 by Klaproth and Hope, isolated in 1808 by Humphry Davy.") 1974 e['Y'].description = ( 1975 "Silvery-grey metallic element of group 3 on the periodic table. " 1976 "Found in uranium ores. The only natural isotope is Y-89, there " 1977 "are 14 other artificial isotopes. Chemically resembles the " 1978 "lanthanoids. Stable in the air below 400 degrees, celsius. " 1979 "Discovered in 1828 by Friedrich Wohler.") 1980 e['Zr'].description = ( 1981 "Grey-white metallic transition element. Five natural isotopes " 1982 "and six radioactive isotopes are known. Used in nuclear reactors " 1983 "for a Neutron absorber. Discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, " 1984 "isolated in 1824 by Berzelius.") 1985 e['Nb'].description = ( 1986 "Soft, ductile grey-blue metallic transition element. Used in " 1987 "special steels and in welded joints to increase strength. " 1988 "Combines with halogens and oxidizes in air at 200 degrees " 1989 "celsius. Discovered by Charles Hatchett in 1801 and isolated by " 1990 "Blomstrand in 1864. Called Columbium originally.") 1991 e['Mo'].description = ( 1992 "Silvery-white, hard metallic transition element. It is " 1993 "chemically unreactive and is not affected by most acids. It " 1994 "oxidizes at high temperatures. There are seven natural isotopes, " 1995 "and four radioisotopes, Mo-93 being the most stable with a " 1996 "half-life of 3500 years. Molybdenum is used in almost all " 1997 "high-strength steels, it has nuclear applications, and is a " 1998 "catalyst in petroleum refining. Discovered in 1778 by Carl " 1999 "Welhelm Scheele of Sweden. Impure metal was prepared in 1782 by " 2000 "Peter Jacob Hjelm. The name comes from the Greek word molybdos " 2001 "which means lead. Trace amounts of molybdenum are required for " 2002 "all known forms of life. All molybdenum compounds should be " 2003 "considered highly toxic, and will also cause severe birth " 2004 "defects.") 2005 e['Tc'].description = ( 2006 "Radioactive metallic transition element. Can be detected in some " 2007 "stars and the fission products of uranium. First made by Perrier " 2008 "and Segre by bombarding molybdenum with deutrons, giving them " 2009 "Tc-97. Tc-99 is the most stable isotope with a half-life of " 2010 "2.6*10^6 years. Sixteen isotopes are known. Organic technetium " 2011 "compounds are used in bone imaging. Chemical properties are " 2012 "intermediate between rhenium and manganese.") 2013 e['Ru'].description = ( 2014 "Hard white metallic transition element. Found with platinum, " 2015 "used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys. Dissolves in fused " 2016 "alkalis, and is not attacked by acids. Reacts with halogens and " 2017 "oxygen at high temperatures. Isolated in 1844 by K.K. Klaus.") 2018 e['Rh'].description = ( 2019 "Silvery white metallic transition element. Found with platinum " 2020 "and used in some platinum alloys. Not attacked by acids, " 2021 "dissolves only in aqua regia. Discovered in 1803 by W.H. " 2022 "Wollaston.") 2023 e['Pd'].description = ( 2024 "Soft white ductile transition element. Found with some copper " 2025 "and nickel ores. Does not react with oxygen at normal " 2026 "temperatures. Dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid. Discovered " 2027 "in 1803 by W.H. Wollaston.") 2028 e['Ag'].description = ( 2029 "White lustrous soft metallic transition element. Found in both " 2030 "its elemental form and in minerals. Used in jewellery, tableware " 2031 "and so on. Less reactive than silver, chemically.") 2032 e['Cd'].description = ( 2033 "Soft bluish metal belonging to group 12 of the periodic table. " 2034 "Extremely toxic even in low concentrations. Chemically similar to " 2035 "zinc, but lends itself to more complex compounds. Discovered in " 2036 "1817 by F. Stromeyer.") 2037 e['In'].description = ( 2038 "Soft silvery element belonging to group 13 of the periodic " 2039 "table. The most common natural isotope is In-115, which has a " 2040 "half-life of 6*10^4 years. Five other radioisotopes exist. " 2041 "Discovered in 1863 by Reich and Richter.") 2042 e['Sn'].description = ( 2043 "Silvery malleable metallic element belonging to group 14 of the " 2044 "periodic table. Twenty-six isotopes are known, five of which are " 2045 "radioactive. Chemically reactive. Combines directly with chlorine " 2046 "and oxygen and displaces hydrogen from dilute acids.") 2047 e['Sb'].description = ( 2048 "Element of group 15. Multiple allotropic forms. The stable form " 2049 "of antimony is a blue-white metal. Yellow and black antimony are " 2050 "unstable non-metals. Used in flame-proofing, paints, ceramics, " 2051 "enamels, and rubber. Attacked by oxidizing acids and halogens. " 2052 "First reported by Tholden in 1450.") 2053 e['Te'].description = ( 2054 "Silvery metalloid element of group 16. Eight natural isotopes, " 2055 "nine radioactive isotopes. Used in semiconductors and to a degree " 2056 "in some steels. Chemistry is similar to Sulphur. Discovered in " 2057 "1782 by Franz Miller.") 2058 e['I'].description = ( 2059 "Dark violet nonmetallic element, belongs to group 17 of the " 2060 "periodic table. Insoluble in water. Required as a trace element " 2061 "for living organisms. One stable isotope, I-127 exists, in " 2062 "addition to fourteen radioactive isotopes. Chemically the least " 2063 "reactive of the halogens, and the most electropositive metallic " 2064 "halogen. Discovered in 1812 by Courtois.") 2065 e['Xe'].description = ( 2066 "Colourless, odourless gas belonging to group 18 on the periodic " 2067 "table (the noble gases.) Nine natural isotopes and seven " 2068 "radioactive isotopes are known. Xenon was part of the first " 2069 "noble-gas compound synthesized. Several others involving Xenon " 2070 "have been found since then. Xenon was discovered by Ramsey and " 2071 "Travers in 1898.") 2072 e['Cs'].description = ( 2073 "Soft silvery-white metallic element belonging to group 1 of the " 2074 "periodic table. One of the three metals which are liquid at room " 2075 "temperature. Cs-133 is the natural, and only stable, isotope. " 2076 "Fifteen other radioisotopes exist. Caesium reacts explosively " 2077 "with cold water, and ice at temperatures above 157K. Caesium " 2078 "hydroxide is the strongest base known. Caesium is the most " 2079 "electropositive, most alkaline and has the least ionization " 2080 "potential of all the elements. Known uses include the basis of " 2081 "atomic clocks, catalyst for the hydrogenation of some organic " 2082 "compounds, and in photoelectric cells. Caesium was discovered by " 2083 "Gustav Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen in Germany in 1860 " 2084 "spectroscopically. Its identification was based upon the bright " 2085 "blue lines in its spectrum. The name comes from the latin word " 2086 "caesius, which means sky blue. Caesium should be considered " 2087 "highly toxic. Some of the radioisotopes are even more toxic.") 2088 e['Ba'].description = ( 2089 "Silvery-white reactive element, belonging to group 2 of the " 2090 "periodic table. Soluble barium compounds are extremely poisonous. " 2091 "Identified in 1774 by Karl Scheele and extracted in 1808 by " 2092 "Humphry Davy.") 2093 e['La'].description = ( 2094 "(From the Greek word lanthanein, to line hidden) Silvery " 2095 "metallic element belonging to group 3 of the periodic table and " 2096 "oft considered to be one of the lanthanoids. Found in some " 2097 "rare-earth minerals. Twenty-five natural isotopes exist. La-139 " 2098 "which is stable, and La-138 which has a half-life of 10^10 to " 2099 "10^15 years. The other twenty-three isotopes are radioactive. It " 2100 "resembles the lanthanoids chemically. Lanthanum has a low to " 2101 "moderate level of toxicity, and should be handled with care. " 2102 "Discovered in 1839 by C.G. Mosander.") 2103 e['Ce'].description = ( 2104 "Silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. Four " 2105 "natural isotopes exist, and fifteen radioactive isotopes have " 2106 "been identified. Used in some rare-earth alloys. The oxidized " 2107 "form is used in the glass industry. Discovered by Martin .H. " 2108 "Klaproth in 1803.") 2109 e['Pr'].description = ( 2110 "Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. Only " 2111 "natural isotope is Pr-141 which is not radioactive. Fourteen " 2112 "radioactive isotopes have been artificially produced. Used in " 2113 "rare-earth alloys. Discovered in 1885 by C.A. von Welsbach.") 2114 e['Nd'].description = ( 2115 "Soft bright silvery metallic element, belongs to the " 2116 "lanthanoids. Seven natural isotopes, Nd-144 being the only " 2117 "radioactive one with a half-life of 10^10 to 10^15 years. Six " 2118 "artificial radioisotopes have been produced. The metal is used in " 2119 "glass works to color class a shade of violet-purple and make it " 2120 "dichroic. One of the more reactive rare-earth metals, quickly " 2121 "reacts with air. Used in some rare-earth alloys. Neodymium is " 2122 "used to color the glass used in welder's glasses. Neodymium is " 2123 "also used in very powerful, permanent magnets (Nd2Fe14B). " 2124 "Discovered by Carl F. Auer von Welsbach in Austria in 1885 by " 2125 "separating didymium into its elemental components Praseodymium " 2126 "and neodymium. The name comes from the Greek words 'neos didymos' " 2127 "which means 'new twin'. Neodymium should be considered highly " 2128 "toxic, however evidence would seem to show that it acts as little " 2129 "more than a skin and eye irritant. The dust however, presents a " 2130 "fire and explosion hazard.") 2131 e['Pm'].description = ( 2132 "Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. " 2133 "Pm-147, the only natural isotope, is radioactive and has a " 2134 "half-life of 252 years. Eighteen radioisotopes have been " 2135 "produced, but all have very short half-lives. Found only in " 2136 "nuclear decay waste. Pm-147 is of interest as a beta-decay " 2137 "source, however Pm-146 and Pm-148 have to be removed from it " 2138 "first, as they generate gamma radiation. Discovered by J.A. " 2139 "Marinsky, L.E. Glendenin and C.D. Coryell in 1947.") 2140 e['Sm'].description = ( 2141 "Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. Seven " 2142 "natural isotopes, Sm-147 is the only radioisotope, and has a " 2143 "half-life of 2.5*10^11 years. Used for making special alloys " 2144 "needed in the production of nuclear reactors. Also used as a " 2145 "neutron absorber. Small quantities of samarium oxide is used in " 2146 "special optical glasses. The largest use of the element is its " 2147 "ferromagnetic alloy which produces permanent magnets that are " 2148 "five times stronger than magnets produced by any other material. " 2149 "Discovered by Francois Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1879.") 2150 e['Eu'].description = ( 2151 "Soft silvery metallic element belonging to the lanthanoids. " 2152 "Eu-151 and Eu-153 are the only two stable isotopes, both of which " 2153 "are Neutron absorbers. Discovered in 1889 by Sir William Crookes.") 2154 e['Gd'].description = ( 2155 "Soft silvery metallic element belonging to the lanthanoids. " 2156 "Seven natural, stable isotopes are known in addition to eleven " 2157 "artificial isotopes. Gd-155 and Gd-157 and the best neutron " 2158 "absorbers of all elements. Gadolinium compounds are used in " 2159 "electronics. Discovered by J.C.G Marignac in 1880.") 2160 e['Tb'].description = ( 2161 "Silvery metallic element belonging to the lanthanoids. Tb-159 is " 2162 "the only stable isotope, there are seventeen artificial isotopes. " 2163 "Discovered by G.G. Mosander in 1843.") 2164 e['Dy'].description = ( 2165 "Metallic with a bright silvery-white lustre. Dysprosium belongs " 2166 "to the lanthanoids. It is relatively stable in air at room " 2167 "temperatures, it will however dissolve in mineral acids, evolving " 2168 "hydrogen. It is found in from rare-earth minerals. There are " 2169 "seven natural isotopes of dysprosium, and eight radioisotopes, " 2170 "Dy-154 being the most stable with a half-life of 3*10^6 years. " 2171 "Dysprosium is used as a neutron absorber in nuclear fission " 2172 "reactions, and in compact disks. It was discovered by Paul Emile " 2173 "Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886 in France. Its name comes from the " 2174 "Greek word dysprositos, which means hard to obtain.") 2175 e['Ho'].description = ( 2176 "Relatively soft and malleable silvery-white metallic element, " 2177 "which is stable in dry air at room temperature. It oxidizes in " 2178 "moist air and at high temperatures. It belongs to the " 2179 "lanthanoids. A rare-earth metal, it is found in the minerals " 2180 "monazite and gadolinite. It possesses unusual magnetic " 2181 "properties. One natural isotope, Ho-165 exists, six radioisotopes " 2182 "exist, the most stable being Ho-163 with a half-life of 4570 " 2183 "years. Holmium is used in some metal alloys, it is also said to " 2184 "stimulate the metabolism. Discovered by Per Theodor Cleve and " 2185 "J.L. Soret in Switzerland in 1879. The name homium comes from the " 2186 "Greek word Holmia which means Sweden. While all holmium compounds " 2187 "should be considered highly toxic, initial evidence seems to " 2188 "indicate that they do not pose much danger. The metal's dust " 2189 "however, is a fire hazard.") 2190 e['Er'].description = ( 2191 "Soft silvery metallic element which belongs to the lanthanoids. " 2192 "Six natural isotopes that are stable. Twelve artificial isotopes " 2193 "are known. Used in nuclear technology as a neutron absorber. It " 2194 "is being investigated for other possible uses. Discovered by Carl " 2195 "G. Mosander in 1843.") 2196 e['Tm'].description = ( 2197 "Soft grey metallic element that belongs to the lanthanoids. One " 2198 "natural isotope exists, Tm-169, and seventeen artificial isotopes " 2199 "have been produced. No known uses for the element. Discovered in " 2200 "1879 by Per Theodor Cleve.") 2201 e['Yb'].description = ( 2202 "Silvery metallic element of the lanthanoids. Seven natural " 2203 "isotopes and ten artificial isotopes are known. Used in certain " 2204 "steels. Discovered by J.D.G. Marignac in 1878.") 2205 e['Lu'].description = ( 2206 "Silvery-white rare-earth metal which is relatively stable in " 2207 "air. It happens to be the most expensive rare-earth metal. Its " 2208 "found with almost all rare-earth metals, but is very difficult to " 2209 "separate from other elements. Least abundant of all natural " 2210 "elements. Used in metal alloys, and as a catalyst in various " 2211 "processes. There are two natural, stable isotopes, and seven " 2212 "radioisotopes, the most stable being Lu-174 with a half-life of " 2213 "3.3 years. The separation of lutetium from Ytterbium was " 2214 "described by Georges Urbain in 1907. It was discovered at " 2215 "approximately the same time by Carl Auer von Welsbach. The name " 2216 "comes from the Greek word lutetia which means Paris.") 2217 e['Hf'].description = ( 2218 "Silvery lustrous metallic transition element. Used in tungsten " 2219 "alloys in filaments and electrodes, also acts as a neutron " 2220 "absorber. First reported by Urbain in 1911, existence was finally " 2221 "established in 1923 by D. Coster, G.C. de Hevesy in 1923.") 2222 e['Ta'].description = ( 2223 "Heavy blue-grey metallic transition element. Ta-181 is a stable " 2224 "isotope, and Ta-180 is a radioactive isotope, with a half-life in " 2225 "excess of 10^7 years. Used in surgery as it is unreactive. Forms " 2226 "a passive oxide layer in air. Identified in 1802 by Ekeberg and " 2227 "isolated in 1820 by Jons J. Berzelius.") 2228 e['W'].description = ( 2229 "White or grey metallic transition element,formerly called " 2230 "Wolfram. Forms a protective oxide in air and can be oxidized at " 2231 "high temperature. First isolated by Jose and Fausto de Elhuyer in " 2232 "1783.") 2233 e['Re'].description = ( 2234 "Silvery-white metallic transition element. Obtained as a " 2235 "by-product of molybdenum refinement. Rhenium-molybdenum alloys " 2236 "are superconducting.") 2237 e['Os'].description = ( 2238 "Hard blue-white metallic transition element. Found with platinum " 2239 "and used in some alloys with platinum and iridium.") 2240 e['Ir'].description = ( 2241 "Very hard and brittle, silvery metallic transition element. It " 2242 "has a yellowish cast to it. Salts of iridium are highly colored. " 2243 "It is the most corrosion resistant metal known, not attacked by " 2244 "any acid, but is attacked by molten salts. There are two natural " 2245 "isotopes of iridium, and 4 radioisotopes, the most stable being " 2246 "Ir-192 with a half-life of 73.83 days. Ir-192 decays into " 2247 "Platinum, while the other radioisotopes decay into Osmium. " 2248 "Iridium is used in high temperature apparatus, electrical " 2249 "contacts, and as a hardening agent for platinumpy. Discovered in " 2250 "1803 by Smithson Tennant in England. The name comes from the " 2251 "Greek word iris, which means rainbow. Iridium metal is generally " 2252 "non-toxic due to its relative unreactivity, but iridium compounds " 2253 "should be considered highly toxic.") 2254 e['Pt'].description = ( 2255 "Attractive greyish-white metal. When pure, it is malleable and " 2256 "ductile. Does not oxidize in air, insoluble in hydrochloric and " 2257 "nitric acid. Corroded by halogens, cyandies, sulphur and alkalis. " 2258 "Hydrogen and Oxygen react explosively in the presence of " 2259 "platinumpy. There are six stable isotopes and three " 2260 "radioisotopes, the most stable being Pt-193 with a half-life of " 2261 "60 years. Platinum is used in jewelry, laboratory equipment, " 2262 "electrical contacts, dentistry, and anti-pollution devices in " 2263 "cars. PtCl2(NH3)2 is used to treat some forms of cancer. " 2264 "Platinum-Cobalt alloys have magnetic properties. It is also used " 2265 "in the definition of the Standard Hydrogen Electrode. Discovered " 2266 "by Antonio de Ulloa in South America in 1735. The name comes from " 2267 "the Spanish word platina which means silver. Platinum metal is " 2268 "generally not a health concern due to its unreactivity, however " 2269 "platinum compounds should be considered highly toxic.") 2270 e['Au'].description = ( 2271 "Gold is gold colored. It is the most malleable and ductile metal " 2272 "known. There is only one stable isotope of gold, and five " 2273 "radioisotopes of gold, Au-195 being the most stable with a " 2274 "half-life of 186 days. Gold is used as a monetary standard, in " 2275 "jewelry, dentistry, electronics. Au-198 is used in treating " 2276 "cancer and some other medical conditions. Gold has been known to " 2277 "exist as far back as 2600 BC. Gold comes from the Anglo-Saxon " 2278 "word gold. Its symbol, Au, comes from the Latin word aurum, which " 2279 "means gold. Gold is not particularly toxic, however it is known " 2280 "to cause damage to the liver and kidneys in some.") 2281 e['Hg'].description = ( 2282 "Heavy silvery liquid metallic element, belongs to the zinc " 2283 "group. Used in thermometers, barometers and other scientific " 2284 "apparatus. Less reactive than zinc and cadmium, does not displace " 2285 "hydrogen from acids. Forms a number of complexes and " 2286 "organomercury compounds.") 2287 e['Tl'].description = ( 2288 "Pure, unreacted thallium appears silvery-white and exhibits a " 2289 "metallic lustre. Upon reacting with air, it begins to turn " 2290 "bluish-grey and looks like lead. It is very malleable, and can be " 2291 "cut with a knife. There are two stable isotopes, and four " 2292 "radioisotopes, Tl-204 being the most stable with a half-life of " 2293 "3.78 years. Thallium sulphate was used as a rodenticide. Thallium " 2294 "sulphine's conductivity changes with exposure to infrared light, " 2295 "this gives it a use in infrared detectors. Discovered by Sir " 2296 "William Crookes via spectroscopy. Its name comes from the Greek " 2297 "word thallos, which means green twig. Thallium and its compounds " 2298 "are toxic and can cause cancer.") 2299 e['Pb'].description = ( 2300 "Heavy dull grey ductile metallic element, belongs to group 14. " 2301 "Used in building construction, lead-place accumulators, bullets " 2302 "and shot, and is part of solder, pewter, bearing metals, type " 2303 "metals and fusible alloys.") 2304 e['Bi'].description = ( 2305 "White crystalline metal with a pink tinge, belongs to group 15. " 2306 "Most diamagnetic of all metals and has the lowest thermal " 2307 "conductivity of all the elements except mercury. Lead-free " 2308 "bismuth compounds are used in cosmetics and medical procedures. " 2309 "Burns in the air and produces a blue flame. In 1753, C.G. Junine " 2310 "first demonstrated that it was different from lead.") 2311 e['Po'].description = ( 2312 "Rare radioactive metallic element, belongs to group 16 of the " 2313 "periodic table. Over 30 known isotopes exist, the most of all " 2314 "elements. Po-209 has a half-life of 103 years. Possible uses in " 2315 "heating spacecraft. Discovered by Marie Curie in 1898 in a sample " 2316 "of pitchblende.") 2317 e['At'].description = ( 2318 "Radioactive halogen element. Occurs naturally from uranium and " 2319 "thorium decay. At least 20 known isotopes. At-210, the most " 2320 "stable, has a half-life of 8.3 hours. Synthesized by nuclear " 2321 "bombardment in 1940 by D.R. Corson, K.R. MacKenzie and E. Segre " 2322 "at the University of California.") 2323 e['Rn'].description = ( 2324 "Colorless radioactive gaseous element, belongs to the noble " 2325 "gases. Of the twenty known isotopes, the most stable is Rn-222 " 2326 "with a half-life of 3.8 days. Formed by the radioactive decay of " 2327 "Radium-226. Radon itself decays into Polonium. Used in " 2328 "radiotherapy. As a noble gas, it is effectively inert, though " 2329 "radon fluoride has been synthesized. First isolated in 1908 by " 2330 "Ramsey and Gray.") 2331 e['Fr'].description = ( 2332 "Radioactive element, belongs to group 1 of the periodic table. " 2333 "Found in uranium and thorium ores. The 22 known isotopes are all " 2334 "radioactive, with the most stable being Fr-223. Its existence was " 2335 "confirmed in 1939 by Marguerite Perey.") 2336 e['Ra'].description = ( 2337 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to group 2 of " 2338 "the periodic table. Most stable isotope, Ra-226 has a half-life " 2339 "of 1602 years, which decays into radon. Isolated from pitchblende " 2340 "in 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie.") 2341 e['Ac'].description = ( 2342 "Silvery radioactive metallic element, belongs to group 3 of the " 2343 "periodic table. The most stable isotope, Ac-227, has a half-life " 2344 "of 217 years. Ac-228 (half-life of 6.13 hours) also occurs in " 2345 "nature. There are 22 other artificial isotopes, all radioactive " 2346 "and having very short half-lives. Chemistry similar to " 2347 "lanthanumpy. Used as a source of alpha particles. Discovered by " 2348 "A. Debierne in 1899.") 2349 e['Th'].description = ( 2350 "Grey radioactive metallic element. Belongs to actinoids. Found " 2351 "in monazite sand in Brazil, India and the US. Thorium-232 has a " 2352 "half-life of 1.39x10^10 years. Can be used as a nuclear fuel for " 2353 "breeder reactors. Thorium-232 captures slow Neutrons and breeds " 2354 "uranium-233. Discovered by Jons J. Berzelius in 1829.") 2355 e['Pa'].description = ( 2356 "Radioactive metallic element, belongs to the actinoids. The most " 2357 "stable isotope, Pa-231 has a half-life of 2.43*10^4 years. At " 2358 "least 10 other radioactive isotopes are known. No practical " 2359 "applications are known. Discovered in 1917 by Lise Meitner and " 2360 "Otto Hahn.") 2361 e['U'].description = ( 2362 "White radioactive metallic element belonging to the actinoids. " 2363 "Three natural isotopes, U-238, U-235 and U-234. Uranium-235 is " 2364 "used as the fuel for nuclear reactors and weapons. Discovered by " 2365 "Martin H. Klaproth in 1789.") 2366 e['Np'].description = ( 2367 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the " 2368 "actinoids. Np-237, the most stable isotope, has a half-life of " 2369 "2.2*10^6 years and is a by product of nuclear reactors. The other " 2370 "known isotopes have mass numbers 229 through 236, and 238 through " 2371 "241. Np-236 has a half-life of 5*10^3 years. First produced by " 2372 "Edwin M. McMillan and P.H. Abelson in 1940.") 2373 e['Pu'].description = ( 2374 "Dense silvery radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs " 2375 "to the actinoids. Pu-244 is the most stable isotope with a " 2376 "half-life of 7.6*10^7 years. Thirteen isotopes are known. Pu-239 " 2377 "is the most important, it undergoes nuclear fission with slow " 2378 "neutrons and is hence important to nuclear weapons and reactors. " 2379 "Plutonium production is monitored down to the gram to prevent " 2380 "military misuse. First produced by Gleen T. Seaborg, Edwin M. " 2381 "McMillan, J.W. Kennedy and A.C. Wahl in 1940.") 2382 e['Am'].description = ( 2383 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the " 2384 "actinoids. Ten known isotopes. Am-243 is the most stable isotope, " 2385 "with a half-life of 7.95*10^3 years. Discovered by Glenn T. " 2386 "Seaborg and associates in 1945, it was obtained by bombarding " 2387 "Uranium-238 with alpha particles.") 2388 e['Cm'].description = ( 2389 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs to actinoid " 2390 "series. Nine known isotopes, Cm-247 has a half-life of 1.64*10^7 " 2391 "years. First identified by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in " 2392 "1944, first produced by L.B. Werner and I. Perlman in 1947 by " 2393 "bombarding americium-241 with Neutrons. Named for Marie Curie.") 2394 e['Bk'].description = ( 2395 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs to actinoid " 2396 "series. Eight known isotopes, the most common Bk-247, has a " 2397 "half-life of 1.4*10^3 years. First produced by Glenn T. Seaborg " 2398 "and associates in 1949 by bombarding americium-241 with alpha " 2399 "particles.") 2400 e['Cf'].description = ( 2401 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs to actinoid " 2402 "series. Cf-251 has a half life of about 700 years. Nine isotopes " 2403 "are known. Cf-252 is an intense Neutron source, which makes it an " 2404 "intense Neutron source and gives it a use in Neutron activation " 2405 "analysis and a possible use as a radiation source in medicine. " 2406 "First produced by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in 1950.") 2407 e['Es'].description = ( 2408 "Appearance is unknown, however it is most probably metallic and " 2409 "silver or gray in color. Radioactive metallic transuranic element " 2410 "belonging to the actinoids. Es-254 has the longest half-life of " 2411 "the eleven known isotopes at 270 days. First identified by Albert " 2412 "Ghiorso and associates in the debris of the 1952 hydrogen bomb " 2413 "explosion. In 1961 the first microgram quantities of Es-232 were " 2414 "separated. While einsteinium never exists naturally, if a " 2415 "sufficient amount was assembled, it would pose a radiation " 2416 "hazard.") 2417 e['Fm'].description = ( 2418 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the " 2419 "actinoids. Ten known isotopes, most stable is Fm-257 with a " 2420 "half-life of 10 days. First identified by Albert Ghiorso and " 2421 "associates in the debris of the first hydrogen-bomb explosion in " 2422 "1952.") 2423 e['Md'].description = ( 2424 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs to the " 2425 "actinoid series. Only known isotope, Md-256 has a half-life of " 2426 "1.3 hours. First identified by Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso " 2427 "and associates in 1955. Alternative name Unnilunium has been " 2428 "proposed. Named after the 'inventor' of the periodic table, " 2429 "Dmitri Mendeleev.") 2430 e['No'].description = ( 2431 "Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the " 2432 "actinoids. Seven known isotopes exist, the most stable being " 2433 "No-254 with a half-life of 255 seconds. First identified with " 2434 "certainty by Albert Ghiorso and Glenn T. Seaborg in 1966. " 2435 "Unnilbium has been proposed as an alternative name.") 2436 e['Lr'].description = ( 2437 "Appearance unknown, however it is most likely silvery-white or " 2438 "grey and metallic. Lawrencium is a synthetic rare-earth metal. " 2439 "There are eight known radioisotopes, the most stable being Lr-262 " 2440 "with a half-life of 3.6 hours. Due to the short half-life of " 2441 "lawrencium, and its radioactivity, there are no known uses for " 2442 "it. Identified by Albert Ghiorso in 1961 at Berkeley. It was " 2443 "produced by bombarding californium with boron ions. The name is " 2444 "temporary IUPAC nomenclature, the origin of the name comes from " 2445 "Ernest O. Lawrence, the inventor of the cyclotron. If sufficient " 2446 "amounts of lawrencium were produced, it would pose a radiation " 2447 "hazard.") 2448 e['Rf'].description = ( 2449 "Radioactive transactinide element. Expected to have similar " 2450 "chemical properties to those displayed by hafnium. Rf-260 was " 2451 "discovered by the Joint Nuclear Research Institute at Dubna " 2452 "(U.S.S.R.) in 1964. Researchers at Berkeley discovered Unq-257 " 2453 "and Unq-258 in 1964.") 2454 e['Db'].description = ( 2455 "Also known as Hahnium, Ha. Radioactive transactinide element. " 2456 "Half-life of 1.6s. Discovered in 1970 by Berkeley researchers. So " 2457 "far, seven isotopes have been discovered.") 2458 e['Sg'].description = ( 2459 "Half-life of 0.9 +/- 0.2 s. Discovered by the Joint Institute " 2460 "for Nuclear Research at Dubna (U.S.S.R.) in June of 1974. Its " 2461 "existence was confirmed by the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and " 2462 "Livermore National Laboratory in September of 1974.") 2463 e['Bh'].description = ( 2464 "Radioactive transition metal. Half-life of approximately 1/500 " 2465 "s. Discovered by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at " 2466 "Dubna (U.S.S.R.) in 1976. Confirmed by West German physicists at " 2467 "the Heavy Ion Research Laboratory at Darmstadt.") 2468 e['Hs'].description = ( 2469 "Radioactive transition metal first synthesized in 1984 by a " 2470 "German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried " 2471 "Muenzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research at Darmstadt.") 2472 e['Mt'].description = ( 2473 "Half-life of approximately 5 ms. The creation of this element " 2474 "demonstrated that fusion techniques could indeed be used to make " 2475 "new, heavy nuclei. Made and identified by physicists of the Heavy " 2476 "Ion Research Laboratory, Darmstadt, West Germany in 1982. Named " 2477 "in honor of Lise Meitner, the Austrian physicist.") 2478 return e[symbol].description 2479 2480 2481def sqlite_script(): 2482 """Return SQL script to create sqlite database of elements. 2483 2484 Examples 2485 -------- 2486 >>> import sqlite3 2487 >>> con = sqlite3.connect(':memory:') 2488 >>> cur = con.executescript(sqlite_script()) 2489 >>> con.commit() 2490 >>> for r in cur.execute("SELECT name FROM element WHERE number=6"): 2491 ... str(r[0]) 2492 'Carbon' 2493 >>> con.close() 2494 2495 """ 2496 sql = [""" 2497 CREATE TABLE "period" ( 2498 "number" TINYINT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, 2499 "label" CHAR NOT NULL UNIQUE, 2500 "description" VARCHAR(64) 2501 ); 2502 CREATE TABLE "group" ( 2503 "number" TINYINT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, 2504 "label" VARCHAR(8) NOT NULL, 2505 "description" VARCHAR(64) 2506 ); 2507 CREATE TABLE "block" ( 2508 "label" CHAR NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, 2509 "description" VARCHAR(64) 2510 ); 2511 CREATE TABLE "series" ( 2512 "id" TINYINT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, 2513 "label" VARCHAR(32) NOT NULL, 2514 "description" VARCHAR(256) 2515 ); 2516 CREATE TABLE "element" ( 2517 "number" TINYINT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, 2518 "symbol" VARCHAR(2) UNIQUE NOT NULL, 2519 "name" VARCHAR(16) UNIQUE NOT NULL, 2520 "period" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2521 --FOREIGN KEY("period") REFERENCES "period"(number), 2522 "group" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2523 --FOREIGN KEY("group") REFERENCES "group"(number), 2524 "block" CHAR NOT NULL, 2525 --FOREIGN KEY("block") REFERENCES "block"(label), 2526 "series" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2527 --FOREIGN KEY("series") REFERENCES "series"(id), 2528 "mass" REAL NOT NULL, 2529 "eleneg" REAL, 2530 "covrad" REAL, 2531 "atmrad" REAL, 2532 "vdwrad" REAL, 2533 "tboil" REAL, 2534 "tmelt" REAL, 2535 "density" REAL, 2536 "eleaffin" REAL, 2537 "eleconfig" VARCHAR(32), 2538 "oxistates" VARCHAR(32), 2539 "description" VARCHAR(2048) 2540 ); 2541 CREATE TABLE "isotope" ( 2542 "element" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2543 --FOREIGN KEY ("element") REFERENCES "element"("number"), 2544 "massnum" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2545 "mass" REAL NOT NULL, 2546 "abundance" REAL NOT NULL, 2547 PRIMARY KEY ("element", "massnum") 2548 ); 2549 CREATE TABLE "eleconfig" ( 2550 "element" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2551 --FOREIGN KEY ("element") REFERENCES "element"("number"), 2552 "shell" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2553 --FOREIGN KEY ("shell") REFERENCES "period"("number"), 2554 "subshell" CHAR NOT NULL, 2555 --FOREIGN KEY ("subshell") REFERENCES "block"("label"), 2556 "count" TINYINT, 2557 PRIMARY KEY ("element", "shell", "subshell") 2558 ); 2559 CREATE TABLE "ionenergy" ( 2560 "element" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2561 --FOREIGN KEY ("element") REFERENCES "element"("number"), 2562 "number" TINYINT NOT NULL, 2563 "energy" REAL NOT NULL, 2564 PRIMARY KEY ("element", "number") 2565 ); 2566 """] 2567 2568 for key, label in PERIODS.items(): 2569 sql.append("""INSERT INTO "period" VALUES (%i, '%s', NULL);""" % ( 2570 key, label)) 2571 2572 for key, (label, descr) in GROUPS.items(): 2573 sql.append("""INSERT INTO "group" VALUES (%i, '%s', '%s');""" % ( 2574 key, label, descr)) 2575 2576 for data in BLOCKS.items(): 2577 sql.append("""INSERT INTO "block" VALUES ('%s', '%s');""" % data) 2578 2579 for series in sorted(SERIES): 2580 sql.append("""INSERT INTO "series" VALUES (%i, '%s', '');""" % ( 2581 series, SERIES[series])) 2582 2583 for ele in ELEMENTS: 2584 sql.append(""" 2585 INSERT INTO "element" VALUES (%i, '%s', '%s', %i, %i, '%s', %i, 2586 %.10f, %.4f, %.4f, %.4f, %.4f, 2587 %.4f, %.4f, %.4f, %.8f, 2588 '%s', '%s', 2589 '%s' 2590 );""" % ( 2591 ele.number, ele.symbol, ele.name, ele.period, ele.group, 2592 ele.block, ele.series, ele.mass, ele.eleneg, 2593 ele.covrad, ele.atmrad, ele.vdwrad, ele.tboil, ele.tmelt, 2594 ele.density, ele.eleaffin, ele.eleconfig, ele.oxistates, 2595 word_wrap( 2596 ele.description.replace("'", "\'\'").replace("\"", "\"\""), 2597 linelen=74, indent=0, joinstr="\n "))) 2598 2599 for ele in ELEMENTS: 2600 for iso in ele.isotopes.values(): 2601 sql.append( 2602 """INSERT INTO "isotope" VALUES (%i, %i, %.10f, %.8f);""" % ( 2603 ele.number, iso.massnumber, iso.mass, iso.abundance)) 2604 2605 for ele in ELEMENTS: 2606 for (shell, subshell), count in ele.eleconfig_dict.items(): 2607 sql.append( 2608 """INSERT INTO "eleconfig" VALUES (%i, %i, '%s', %i);""" % ( 2609 ele.number, shell, subshell, count)) 2610 2611 for ele in ELEMENTS: 2612 for i, ionenergy in enumerate(ele.ionenergy): 2613 sql.append("""INSERT INTO "ionenergy" VALUES (%i, %i, %.4f);""" % ( 2614 ele.number, i + 1, ionenergy)) 2615 2616 return '\n'.join(sql).replace(" ", "") 2617 2618 2619def word_wrap(text, linelen=80, indent=0, joinstr="\n"): 2620 """Return string, word wrapped at linelen.""" 2621 if len(text) < linelen: 2622 return text 2623 result = [] 2624 line = [] 2625 llen = -indent 2626 for word in text.split(): 2627 llen += len(word) + 1 2628 if llen < linelen: 2629 line.append(word) 2630 else: 2631 result.append(" ".join(line)) 2632 line = [word] 2633 llen = len(word) 2634 if line: 2635 result.append(" ".join(line)) 2636 return joinstr.join(result) 2637 2638 2639if __name__ == "__main__": 2640 for ele in ELEMENTS: 2641 print(repr(ele), '\n') 2642 import doctest 2643 doctest.testmod(verbose=False) 2644 2645