local/info/m4.info-1

This is Info file m4.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.47 from the input
file m4.texinfo.

   This file documents the GNU m4 utility.

   Copyright (C) 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation,
Inc.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms
of a permission notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions.


File: m4.info,  Node: Top,  Next: Intro,  Prev: (dir),  Up: (dir)

   This file documents GNU the `m4' simple macroprocessor, as of
release 1.1.  It has been originally written by Rene Seindal, from
Denmark.

* Menu:

* Intro::                       Introduction to m4
* Manual::                      How to use this manual
* Bugs::                        Reporting bugs in m4

* Invoking m4::                 How to run the program
* Syntax::                      Lexical and syntactic conventions

* Macros::                      How to invoke macros
* Definitions::                 How to define new macros
* Conditionals::                Conditionals and loops

* Debugging::                   How to debug macros and input
* Input Control::               Input control

* File Inclusion::              File inclusion
* Diversions::                  Diverting and undiverting output

* Text handling::               Macros for text handling
* Arithmetic::                  Macros for doing arithmetic
* Unix commands::               Macros for running Unix commands
* Miscellaneous::               Miscellaneous built-in macros

* Compatibility::               Compatibility with other versions of m4

* Concept index::		Index for many concepts
* Macro index::			Index for all m4 macros

 -- The Detailed Node Listing --

Lexical and syntactic conventions

* Names::                       Macro names.
* Quoted strings::              Quoting input to m4.
* Other tokens::                Other kinds of input tokens.
* Comments::                    Comments in m4 input.

How to invoke macros

* Invocation::                  Macro invocation
* Macro Arguments::             Macro arguments.
* Quoting Arguments::           On Quoting Arguments to macros.
* Macro expansion::             Expanding macros.

How to define new macros

* Define::                      Defining a new macro
* Arguments::                   Arguments to macros
* Pseudo Arguments::            Pseudo arguments to macros
* Undefine::                    Deleting a macro
* Defn::                        Renaming macros
* Pushdef::                     Temporarily redefining macros

* Indir::                       Indirect call of macros
* Builtin::                     Indirect call of built-ins

Conditionals, loops and recursion

* Ifdef::                       Testing if a macro is defined
* Ifelse::                      If-else construct, or multibranch
* Loops::                       Loops and recursion in m4

How to debug macros and input

* Dumpdef::                     Displaying macro definitions
* Trace::                       Tracing macro calls
* Debug Levels::                Controlling debugging output
* Debug Output::                Saving debugging output

Input control

* Dnl::                         Deleting whitespace in input
* Changequote::                 Changing the quote characters
* Changecom::                   Changing the comment delimiters
* M4wrap::                      Saving input until end of input

File inclusion

* Include::                     Including named files
* Search Path::                 Searching for include files

Diverting and undiverting output

* Divert::                      Diverting output
* Undivert::                    Undiverting output
* Divnum::                      Diversion numbers
* Cleardiv::                    Discarding diverted text

Macros for text handling

* Len::                         Calculating length of strings
* Index::                       Searching for substrings
* Regexp::                      Searching for regular expressions
* Substr::                      Extracting substrings
* Translit::                    Translating characters
* Patsubst::                    Substituting text by regular expression
* Format::                      Formatting strings (printf-like)

Macros for doing arithmetic

* Incr::                        Decrement and increment operators
* Eval::                        Evaluating integer expressions

Running Unix commands

* Syscmd::                      Executing simple commands
* Esyscmd::                     Reading the output of commands
* Sysval::                      Exit codes
* Maketemp::                    Making names for temporary files

Miscellaneous built-in macros

* Errprint::                    Printing error messages
* M4exit::                      Exiting from m4

Compatibility with other versions of `m4'

* Extensions::                  Extensions in GNU m4
* Incompatibilities::           Facilities in System V m4 not in GNU m4
* Other Incompat::              Other incompatibilities


File: m4.info,  Node: Intro,  Next: Manual,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

Introduction to `m4'
********************

   `m4' is a macro processor, in the sense that in copies its input to
the output, expanding macros as it goes.  Macros are either built-in or
user-defined, and can take any number of arguments.  Besides just doing
macro expansion, `m4' has built-in functions for including named files,
running Unix commands, doing integer arithmetic, manipulating text in
various ways, recursion, etc...

   `m4' can be used either as a front-end to a compiler, or as a macro
processor in its own right.

   GNU `m4' is mostly compatible with the System V, Release 3 version,
except for some minor differences.  *Note Compatibility:: for more
details.


File: m4.info,  Node: Manual,  Next: Bugs,  Prev: Intro,  Up: Top

Using this manual
*****************

   This manual contains a number of examples of `m4' input and output,
and a simple notation is used to distinguish input, output and error
messages from `m4'.  Examples are set out from the normal text, and
shown in a fixed width font, like this

     This is an example of an example!

   To distinguish input from output, all output from `m4' is prefixed
by the string `=>', and all error messages by the string `error-->'.
Thus

     Example of input line
     =>Output line from m4
     error-->and an error message

   As each of the predefined macros in `m4' is described, a prototype
call of the macro will be shown, giving descriptive names to the
arguments, e.g.,

     regexp(STRING, REGEXP, opt REPLACEMENT)

   All macro arguments in `m4' are strings, but some are given special
interpretation, e.g., as numbers, filenames, regular expressions, etc.

   The `opt' before the third argument shows that this argument is
optional--if it is left out, it is taken to be the empty string.  An
ellipsis (`...') last in the argument list indicates that any number of
arguments may follow.


File: m4.info,  Node: Bugs,  Next: Invoking m4,  Prev: Manual,  Up: Top

Problems and bugs
*****************

   If you have problems with GNU `m4' or think you've found a bug,
please report it.  Before reporting a bug, make sure you've actually
found a real bug.  Carefully reread the documentation and see if it
really says you can do what you're trying to do.  If it's not clear
whether you should be able to do something or not, report that too; it's
a bug in the documentation!

   Before reporting a bug or trying to fix it yourself, try to isolate
it to the smallest possible input file that reproduces the problem.
Then send us the input file and the exact results `m4' gave you.  Also
say what you expected to occur; this will help us decide whether the
problem was really in the documentation.

   Once you've got a precise problem, send e-mail to (Internet)
`bug-gnu-utils@prep.ai.mit.edu' or (UUCP)
`mit-eddie!prep.ai.mit.edu!bug-gnu-utils'.  Please include the version
number of `m4' you are using.  You can get this information with the
command `m4 -V /dev/null'.

   Non-bug suggestions are always welcome as well.  If you have
questions about things that are unclear in the documentation or are
just obscure features, please report them too.


File: m4.info,  Node: Invoking m4,  Next: Syntax,  Prev: Bugs,  Up: Top

Invoking `m4'
*************

   The format of the `m4' command is:

     `m4' [OPTION...] [MACRO-DEFINITIONS...] [INPUT-FILE...]

   All options begin with `-', or if long option names are used, with a
`--'.  A long option name need not be written completely, and
unambigous prefix is sufficient.  `m4' understands the following
options:

`--version'
     Print the version number of the program on standard output, then
     immediately exit `m4' without reading any INPUT-FILES.

`--help'
     Print an help summary on standard output, then immediately exit
     `m4' without reading any INPUT-FILES.

`-G'
`--traditional'
     Suppress all the extensions made in this implementation, compared
     to the System V version.  For a list of these, *note
     Compatibility::..

`-dFLAGS'
`--debug=FLAGS'
     Set the debug-level according to the flags FLAGS.  The debug-level
     controls the format and amount of information presented by the
     debugging functions.  *Note Debug Levels:: for more details on the
     format and meaning of FLAGS.

`-lNUM'
`--arglength=NUM'
     Restrict the size of the output generated by macro tracing.  *Note
     Debug Levels:: for more details.

`-oFILE'
`--erroroutput=FILE'
     Redirect debug and trace output to the named file.  Error messages
     are still printed on the standard error output.  *Note Debug
     Output:: for more details.

`-IDIR'
`--include=DIR'
     Make `m4' search DIR for included files that are not found in the
     current working directory.  *Note Search Path:: for more details.

`-e'
`--interactive'
     Makes this invocation of `m4' interactive.  This means that all
     output will be unbuffered, and interrupts will be ignored.

`-s'
`--synclines'
     Generate synchronisation lines, for use by the C preprocessor or
     other similar tools.  This is useful, for example, when `m4' is
     used as a front end to a compiler.  Source file name and line
     number information is conveyed by directives of the form `#line
     LINENUM "FILENAME"', which are inserted as needed into the middle
     of the input.  Such directives mean that the following line
     originated or was expanded from the contents of input file
     FILENAME at line LINENUM.  The `"FILENAME"' part is often omitted
     when the file name did not change from the previous directive.

     Synchronisation directives are always given on complete lines per
     themselves.  When a synchronisation discrepancy occurs in the
     middle of an output line, the associated synchronisation directive
     is delayed until the beginning of the next generated line.

`-P'
`--prefix_builtins'
     Internally modify *all* builtin macro names so they all start with
     the prefix `m4_'.  For example, using this option, one should write
     `m4_define' instead of `define', and `m4___file__' instead of
     `__file__'.

`-HN'
`--hashsize=N'
     Make the internal hash table for symbol lookup be N entries big.
     The number should be prime.  The default is 509 entries.  It
     should not be necessary to increase this value, unless you define
     an excessive number of macros.

`-NN'
`--diversions=N'
     Allow for up to N diversions to be used at the same time.  The
     default is 10 diversions.

`-Q'
`--quiet'
`--silent'
     Suppress warnings about missing or superflous arguments in macro
     calls.

`-B'
`-S'
`-T'
     These options are present for compatibility with System V `m4', but
     do nothing in this implementation.

   Macro definitions and deletions can be made on the command line, by
using the `-D' and `-U' options.  They have the following format:

`-DNAME'
`-DNAME=VALUE'
`--define=NAME'
`--define=NAME=VALUE'
     This enters NAME into the symbol table, before any input files are
     read.  If `=VALUE' is missing, the value is taken to be the empty
     string.  The VALUE can be any string, and the macro can be defined
     to take arguments, just as if it was defined from within the input.

`-UNAME'
`--undefine=NAME'
     This deletes any predefined meaning NAME might have.  Obviously,
     only predefined macros can be deleted in this way.

`-tNAME'
`--trace=NAME'
     This enters NAME into the symbol table, as undefined but traced.
     The macro will consequently be traced from the point it is defined.

   The remaining arguments on the command line are taken to be input
file names.  If no names are present, the standard input is read.  A
file name of `-' is taken to mean the standard input.

   The input files are read in the sequence given.  The standard input
can only be read once, so the filename `-' should only appear once on
the command line.


File: m4.info,  Node: Syntax,  Next: Macros,  Prev: Invoking m4,  Up: Top

Lexical and syntactic conventions
*********************************

   As `m4' reads its input, it separates it into "tokens".  A token is
either a name, a quoted string, or any single character, that is not a
part of either a name or a string.  Input to `m4' can also contain
comments.

* Menu:

* Names::                       Macro names.
* Quoted strings::              Quoting input to m4.
* Other tokens::                Other kinds of input tokens.
* Comments::                    Comments in m4 input.


File: m4.info,  Node: Names,  Next: Quoted strings,  Prev: Syntax,  Up: Syntax

Names
=====

   A name is any sequence of letters, digits, and the character `_'
(underscore), where the first character is not a digit.  If a name has a
macro definition, it will be subject to macro expansion (*note
Macros::. for more details).

   Examples of legal names are: `foo', `_tmp', and `name01'.


File: m4.info,  Node: Quoted strings,  Next: Other tokens,  Prev: Names,  Up: Syntax

Quoted strings
==============

   A quoted string is a sequence of characters surrounded by the quotes
``' and `'', where the number of start and end quotes within the string
balances.  The value of a string token is the text, with one level of
quotes stripped off.  Thus

     `'

   is the empty string, and

     ``quoted''

   is the string

     `quoted'

   The quote characters can be changed at any time, using the built-in
macro `changequote'.  *Note Changequote:: for more information.


File: m4.info,  Node: Other tokens,  Next: Comments,  Prev: Quoted strings,  Up: Syntax

Other tokens
============

   Any character, that is neither a part of a name, nor of a quoted
string, is a token by itself.


File: m4.info,  Node: Comments,  Prev: Other tokens,  Up: Syntax

Comments
========

   Comments in `m4' are normally delimited by the characters `#' and
newline.  All characters between the comment delimiters are ignored,
but the entire comment (including the delimiters) is passed through to
the output--comments are *not* discarded by `m4'.

   Comments cannot be nested, so the first newline after a `#' ends the
comment.  The begin comment character can be included in the input by
quoting it.

   The comment delimiters can be changed to any string at any time,
using the built-in macro `changecom'.  *Note Changecom:: for more
information.


File: m4.info,  Node: Macros,  Next: Definitions,  Prev: Syntax,  Up: Top

How to invoke macros
********************

   This chapter covers macro invocation, macro arguments and how macro
expansion is treated.

* Menu:

* Invocation::                  Macro invocation
* Macro Arguments::             Macro arguments.
* Quoting Arguments::           On Quoting Arguments to macros.
* Macro expansion::             Expanding macros.


File: m4.info,  Node: Invocation,  Next: Macro Arguments,  Prev: Macros,  Up: Macros

Macro invocation
================

   Macro invocations has one of the forms

     name

which is a macro invocation without any arguments, or

     name(arg1, arg2, ..., argN)

which is a macro invocation with N arguments.  Macros can have any
number of arguments.  All arguments are strings, but different macros
might interpret the arguments in different ways.

   The opening parenthesis *must* follow the NAME directly, with no
spaces in between.  If it does not, the macro is called with no
arguments at all.

   For a macro call to have no arguments, the parentheses *must* be
left out.  The macro call

     name()

is a macro call with one argument, which is the empty string, not a call
with no arguments.

   Many builtin macros cannot meaningfully be called without arguments.
For any of these macros, whenever an opening parenthesis does not
immediately follow their name, then they are not recognized as builtin
macros.  The sentence "This macro is recognized only when given
arguments.", later in this document, means exactly that.


File: m4.info,  Node: Macro Arguments,  Next: Quoting Arguments,  Prev: Invocation,  Up: Macros

Macro arguments
===============

   When a name is seen, and it has a macro definition, it will be
expanded as a macro.

   If the name is followed by an opening parenthesis, the arguments
will be collected before the macro is called.  If too few arguments are
supplied, the missing arguments are taken to be the empty string.  If
there are too many arguments, the excess arguments are ignored.

   Normally `m4' will issue warnings if a built-in macro is called with
an inappropriate number of arguments, but it can be suppressed with the
`-Q' command line option.  For user defined macros, there is no check
of the number of arguments given.

   Macros are expanded normally during argument collection, and whatever
commas, quotes and parentheses that might show up in the resulting
expanded text will serve to define the arguments as well.  Thus, if FOO
expands to `,b,c', the macro call

     bar(a foo,d)

   is a macro call with four arguments, which are `a ', `b', `c' and
`d'.


File: m4.info,  Node: Quoting Arguments,  Next: Macro expansion,  Prev: Macro Arguments,  Up: Macros

Quoting macro arguments
=======================

   Each argument has leading unquoted whitespace removed.  Within each
argument, all unquoted parentheses must match.  For example, if FOO is
a macro,

     foo(() (`(') `(')

   is a macro call, with one argument, whose value is `() (() ('.

   It is common practice to quote all arguments to macros, unless you
are sure you want the arguments expanded.  Thus, in the above example
with the parentheses, the `right' way to do it is like this:

     foo(`() (() (')

   It is, however, in certain cases necessary to leave out quotes for
some arguments, and there is nothing wrong in doing it.  It just makes
life a bit harder, if you are not careful.


File: m4.info,  Node: Macro expansion,  Prev: Quoting Arguments,  Up: Macros

Macro expansion
===============

   When the arguments, if any, to a macro call have been collected, the
macro is expanded, and the expansion text is pushed back onto the input
(unquoted), and reread.  The expansion text from one macro call might
therefore result in more macros being called, if the calls are included,
completely or partially, in the first macro calls' expansion.

   Taking a very simple example, if FOO expands to `bar', and BAR
expands to `Hello world', the input

     foo

will expand first to `bar', and when this is reread and expanded, into
`Hello world'.


File: m4.info,  Node: Definitions,  Next: Conditionals,  Prev: Macros,  Up: Top

How to define new macros
************************

   Macros can be defined, redefined and deleted in several different
ways. Also, it is possible to redefine a macro, without losing a
previous value, which can be brought back at a later time.

* Menu:

* Define::                      Defining a new macro
* Arguments::                   Arguments to macros
* Pseudo Arguments::            Pseudo arguments to macros
* Undefine::                    Deleting a macro
* Defn::                        Renaming macros
* Pushdef::                     Temporarily redefining macros

* Indir::                       Indirect call of macros
* Builtin::                     Indirect call of built-ins


File: m4.info,  Node: Define,  Next: Arguments,  Prev: Definitions,  Up: Definitions

Defining a macro
================

   The normal way to define or redefine macros is to use the built-in
`define':

     define(NAME [, EXPANSION])

which defines NAME to expand to EXPANSION.  If EXPANSION is not given,
it is taken to be empty.

   The expansion of `define' is void.

   The following example defines the macro FOO to expand to the text
`Hello World.'.

     define(`foo', `Hello world.')
     =>
     foo
     =>Hello world.

   The empty line in the output is there because the newline is not a
part of the macro definition, and it is consequently copied to the
output. This can be avoided by use of the macro `dnl' (*note Dnl::. for
details).

   The macro `define' is recognized only with parameters.


File: m4.info,  Node: Arguments,  Next: Pseudo Arguments,  Prev: Define,  Up: Definitions

Arguments to macros
===================

   Macros can have arguments.  The Nth argument is denoted by `$n' in
the expansion text, and is replaced by the Nth actual argument, when
the macro is expanded.  Here is a example of a macro with two
arguments.  It simply exchanges the order of the two arguments.

     define(`exch', `$2, $1')
     =>
     exch(arg1, arg2)
     =>arg2, arg1

   This can be used, for example, if you like the arguments to `define'
to be reversed.

     define(`exch', `$2, $1')
     =>
     define(exch(``expansion text'', ``macro''))
     =>
     macro
     =>expansion text

   For an explanation of the double quotes, *note Quoting Arguments::..

   GNU `m4' allows the number following the `$' to consist of one or
more digits, allowing macros to have any number of arguments.  This is
not so in Unix implementations of `m4', which only recognize one digit.

   As a special case, the zero'th argument, `$0', is always the name of
the macro being expanded.

     define(`test', ``Macro name: $0'')
     =>
     test
     =>Macro name: test

   If you want quoted text to appear as part of the expansion text,
remember that quotes can be nested in quoted strings.  Thus, in

     define(`foo', `This is macro `foo'.')
     =>
     foo
     =>This is macro foo.

The `foo' in the expansion text is *not* expanded, since it is a quoted
string, and not a name.


File: m4.info,  Node: Pseudo Arguments,  Next: Undefine,  Prev: Arguments,  Up: Definitions

Special arguments to macros
===========================

   There is a special notation for the number of actual arguments
supplied, and for all the actual arguments.

   The number of actual arguments in a macro call is denoted by `$#' in
the expansion text.  Thus, a macro to display the number of arguments
given can be

     define(`nargs', `$#')
     =>
     nargs
     =>0
     nargs()
     =>1
     nargs(arg1, arg2, arg3)
     =>3

   The notation `$*' can be used in the expansion text to denote all
the actual arguments, unquoted, with commas in between.  For example

     define(`echo', `$*')
     =>
     echo(arg1,    arg2, arg3 , arg4)
     =>arg1,arg2,arg3 ,arg4

   Often each argument should be quoted, and the notation `$@' handles
that.  It is just like `$*', except that it quotes each argument. A
simple example of that is:

     define(`echo', `$@')
     =>
     echo(arg1,    arg2, arg3 , arg4)
     =>arg1,arg2,arg3 ,arg4

   Where did the quotes go?  Of course, they were eaten, when the
expanded text were reread by `m4'.  To show the difference, try

     define(`echo1', `$*')
     =>
     define(`echo2', `$@')
     =>
     define(`foo', `This is macro `foo'.')
     =>
     echo1(foo)
     =>This is macro This is macro foo..
     echo2(foo)
     =>This is macro foo.

   If you don't understand this, *note Trace::..

   A `$' sign in the expansion text, that is not followed by anything
`m4' understands, is simply copied to the macro expansion, as any other
text is.

     define(`foo', `$$$ hello $$$')
     =>
     foo
     =>$$$ hello $$$

   If you want a macro to expand to something like `$12', put a pair of
quotes after the `$'.  This will prevent `m4' from interpreting the `$'
sign as a reference to an argument.


File: m4.info,  Node: Undefine,  Next: Defn,  Prev: Pseudo Arguments,  Up: Definitions

Deleting a macro
================

   A macro definition can be removed with `undefine':

     undefine(NAME)

which removes the macro NAME.  The macro name must necessarily be
quoted, since it will be expanded otherwise.

   The expansion of `undefine' is void.

     foo
     =>foo
     define(`foo', `expansion text')
     =>
     foo
     =>expansion text
     undefine(`foo')
     =>
     foo
     =>foo

   It is not an error for NAME to have no macro definition.  In that
case, `undefine' does nothing.

   The macro `undefine' is recognized only with parameters.


File: m4.info,  Node: Defn,  Next: Pushdef,  Prev: Undefine,  Up: Definitions

Renaming macros
===============

   It is possible to rename an already defined macro.  To do this, you
need the built-in `defn':

     defn(NAME)

which expands to the *quoted definition* of NAME.  If the argument is
not a defined macro, the expansion is void.

   If NAME is a user-defined macro, the quoted definition is simply the
quoted expansion text.  If, instead, NAME is a built-in, the expansion
is a special token, which points to the built-in's internal definition.
 This token is only meaningful as the second argument to `define' (and
`pushdef'), and is ignored in any other context.

   Its normal use is best understood through an example, which shows
how to rename `undefine' to `zap':

     define(`zap', defn(`undefine'))
     =>
     zap(`undefine')
     =>
     undefine(`zap')
     =>undefine(zap)

   In this way, `defn' can be used to copy macro definitions, and also
definitions of built-in macros.  Even if the original macro is removed,
the other name can still be used to access the definition.

   The macro `defn' is recognized only with parameters.


File: m4.info,  Node: Pushdef,  Next: Indir,  Prev: Defn,  Up: Definitions

Temporarily redefining macros
=============================

   It is possible to redefine a macro temporarily, reverting to the
previous definition at a later time. This is done with the built-ins
`pushdef' and `popdef':

     pushdef(NAME [, EXPANSION])
     popdef(NAME)

which are quite analogous to `define' and `undefine'.

   These macros work in a stack-like fashion.  A macro is temporarily
redefined with `pushdef', which replaces an existing definition of
NAME, while saving the previous definition, before the new one is
installed.  If there is no previous definition, `pushdef' behaves
exactly like `define'.

   If a macro has several definitions (of which only one is accessible),
the topmost definition can be removed with `popdef'.  If there is no
previous definition, `popdef' behaves like `undefine'.

     define(`foo', `Expansion one.')
     =>
     foo
     =>Expansion one.
     pushdef(`foo', `Expansion two.')
     =>
     foo
     =>Expansion two.
     popdef(`foo')
     =>
     foo
     =>Expansion one.
     popdef(`foo')
     =>
     foo
     =>foo

   If a macro with several definitions is redefined with `define', the
topmost definition is *replaced* with the new definition.  If it is
removed with `undefine', *all* the definitions are removed, and not
only the topmost one.

     define(`foo', `Expansion one.')
     =>
     foo
     =>Expansion one.
     pushdef(`foo', `Expansion two.')
     =>
     foo
     =>Expansion two.
     define(`foo', `Second expansion two.')
     =>
     foo
     =>Second expansion two.
     undefine(`foo')
     =>
     foo
     =>foo

   It is possible to temporarily redefine a built-in with `pushdef' and
`defn'.

   The macros `pushdef' and `popdef' are recognized only with
parameters.


File: m4.info,  Node: Indir,  Next: Builtin,  Prev: Pushdef,  Up: Definitions

Indirect call of macros
=======================

   Any macro can be called indirectly with `indir':

     indir(NAME, ...)

which results in a call to the macro NAME, which is passed the rest of
the arguments.  This can be used to call macros with "illegal" names
(`define' allows such names to be defined):

     define(`$$internal$macro', `Internal macro (name `$0')')
     =>
     $$internal$macro
     =>$$internal$macro
     indir(`$$internal$macro')
     =>Internal macro (name $$internal$macro)

   The point is, here, that larger macro packages can have private
macros defined, that will not be called by accident.  They can *only* be
called through the built-in `indir'.


File: m4.info,  Node: Builtin,  Prev: Indir,  Up: Definitions

Indirect call of built-ins
==========================

   Built-in macros can be called indirectly with `built-in':

     builtin(NAME, ...)

which results in a call to the built-in NAME, which is passed the rest
of the arguments.  This can be used, if NAME has been given another
definition that has covered the original.

   The macro `builtin' is recognized only with parameters.


File: m4.info,  Node: Conditionals,  Next: Debugging,  Prev: Definitions,  Up: Top

Conditionals, loops and recursion
*********************************

   Macros, expanding to plain text, perhaps with arguments, are not
quite enough.  We would like to have macros expand to different things,
based on decisions taken at run-time.  E.g., we need some kind of
conditionals. Also, we would like to have some kind of loop construct,
so we could do something a number of times, or while some condition is
true.

* Menu:

* Ifdef::                       Testing if a macro is defined
* Ifelse::                      If-else construct, or multibranch
* Loops::                       Loops and recursion in m4


File: m4.info,  Node: Ifdef,  Next: Ifelse,  Prev: Conditionals,  Up: Conditionals

Testing macro definitions
=========================

   There are two different built-in conditionals in `m4'.  The first is
`ifdef':

     ifdef(NAME, STRING-1, opt STRING-2)

which makes it possible to test whether a macro is defined or not.  If
NAME is defined as a macro, `ifdef' expands to STRING-1, otherwise to
STRING-2.  If STRING-2 is omitted, it is taken to be the empty string
(according to the normal rules).

     ifdef(`foo', ``foo' is defined', ``foo' is not defined')
     =>foo is not defined
     define(`foo', `')
     =>
     ifdef(`foo', ``foo' is defined', ``foo' is not defined')
     =>foo is defined

   The macro `ifdef' is recognized only with parameters.


File: m4.info,  Node: Ifelse,  Next: Loops,  Prev: Ifdef,  Up: Conditionals

Comparing strings
=================

   The other conditional, `ifelse', is much more powerful.  It can be
used as a way to introduce a long comment, as an if-else construct, or
as a multibranch, depending on the number of arguments supplied:

     ifelse(COMMENT)
     ifelse(STRING-1, STRING-2, EQUAL, opt NOT-EQUAL)
     ifelse(STRING-1, STRING-2, EQUAL, ...)

Used with only one argument, the `ifelse' simply discards it and
produces no output.  This is a common `m4' idiom for introducing a
block comment, as an alternative to repeatedly using `dnl'.  This
special usage is recognized by GNU `m4', so that in this case, the
warning about missing arguments is never triggered.

   If called with three or four arguments, `ifelse' expands into EQUAL,
if STRING-1 and STRING-2 are equal (character for character), otherwise
it expands to NOT-EQUAL.

     ifelse(foo, bar, `true')
     =>
     ifelse(foo, foo, `true')
     =>true
     ifelse(foo, bar, `true', `false')
     =>false
     ifelse(foo, foo, `true', `false')
     =>true

   However, `ifelse' can take more than four arguments.  If given more
than four arguments, `ifelse' works like a `case' or `switch' statement
in traditional programming languages.  If STRING-1 and STRING-2 are
equal, `ifelse' expands into EQUAL, otherwise the procedure is repeated
with the first three arguments discarded.  This calls for an example:

     ifelse(foo, bar, `third', gnu, gnats, `sixth', `seventh')
     =>seventh

   Naturally, the normal case will be slightly more advanced than these
examples.  A common use of `ifelse' is in macros implementing loops of
various kinds.

   The macro `ifelse' is recognized only with parameters.


File: m4.info,  Node: Loops,  Prev: Ifelse,  Up: Conditionals

Loops and recursion
===================

   There is no direct support for loops in `m4', but macros can be
recursive.  There is no limit on the number of recursion levels, other
than those enforced by your hardware and operating system.

   Loops can be programmed using recursion and the conditionals
described previously.

   There is a built-in macro, `shift', which can, among other things,
be used for iterating through the actual arguments to a macro:

     shift(...)

It takes any number of arguments, and expands to all but the first
argument, separated by commas, with each argument quoted.

     shift(bar)
     =>
     shift(foo, bar, baz)
     =>bar,baz

   An example of the use of `shift' is this macro, which reverses the
order of its arguments:

     define(`reverse', `ifelse($#, 0, , $#, 1, ``$1'',
     			  `reverse(shift($@)), `$1'')')
     =>
     reverse
     =>
     reverse(foo)
     =>foo
     reverse(foo, bar, gnats,and gnus)
     =>and gnus, gnats, bar, foo

   While not a very interesting macro, it does show how simple loops
can be made with `shift', `ifelse' and recursion.

   Here is an example of a loop macro that implements a simple forloop.
 It can, for example, be used for simple counting:

     forloop(`i', 1, 8, `i ')
     =>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

   The arguments are a name for the iteration variable, the starting
value, the final value, and the text to be expanded for each iteration.
 With this macro, the macro `i' is defined only within the loop.  After
the loop, it retains whatever value it might have had before.

   For-loops can be nested, like

     forloop(`i', 1, 4, `forloop(`j', 1, 8, `(i, j) ')
     ')
     =>(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6) (1, 7) (1, 8)
     =>(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) (2, 7) (2, 8)
     =>(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6) (3, 7) (3, 8)
     =>(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) (4, 7) (4, 8)
     =>

   The implementation of the `forloop' macro is fairly straightforward.
 The `forloop' macro itself is simply a wrapper, which saves the
previous definition of the first argument, calls the internal macro
`_forloop', and re-establishes the saved definition of the first
argument.

   The macro `_forloop' expands the fourth argument once, and tests to
see if it is finished.  If it has not finished, it increments the
iteration variable (using the predefined macro `incr' (*note Incr::.
for details)), and recurses.

   Here is the actual implementation of `forloop':

     define(`forloop',
            `pushdef(`$1', `$2')_forloop(`$1', `$2', `$3', `$4')popdef(`$1')')
     define(`_forloop',
            `$4`'ifelse($1, `$3', ,
     		   `define(`$1', incr($1))_forloop(`$1', `$2', `$3', `$4')')')

   Notice the careful use of quotes.  Only three macro arguments are
unquoted, each for its own reason.  Try to find out *why* these three
arguments are left unquoted, and see what happens if they are quoted.

   Now, even though these two macros are useful, they are still not
robust enough for general use. They lack even basic error handling of
cases like start value less than final value, and the first argument
not being a name.  Correcting these errors are left as an exercise to
the reader.


File: m4.info,  Node: Debugging,  Next: Input Control,  Prev: Conditionals,  Up: Top

How to debug macros and input
*****************************

   When writing macros for `m4', most of the time they won't work as
intended (as is the case with most programming languages).  There is a
little support for macro debugging in `m4'.

* Menu:

* Dumpdef::                     Displaying macro definitions
* Trace::                       Tracing macro calls
* Debug Levels::                Controlling debugging output
* Debug Output::                Saving debugging output


File: m4.info,  Node: Dumpdef,  Next: Trace,  Prev: Debugging,  Up: Debugging

Displaying macro definitions
============================

   If you want to see what a name expands into, you can use the built-in
`dumpdef':

     dumpdef(...)

which accepts any number of arguments.  If called without any arguments,
it displays the definitions of all known names, otherwise it displays
the definitions of the names given.  The output is printed directly on
the standard error output.

   The expansion of `dumpdef' is void.

     define(`foo', `Hello world.')
     =>
     dumpdef(`foo')
     error-->foo:	`Hello world.'
     =>
     dumpdef(`define')
     error-->define:	<define>
     =>

   The last example shows how built-in macros definitions are displayed.

   *Note Debug Levels:: for information on controlling the details of
the display.


File: m4.info,  Node: Trace,  Next: Debug Levels,  Prev: Dumpdef,  Up: Debugging

Tracing macro calls
===================

   It is possible to trace macro calls and expansions through the
built-ins `traceon' and `traceoff':

     traceon(...)
     traceoff(...)

When called without any arguments, `traceon' and `traceoff' will turn
tracing on and off, respectively,  for all defined macros. When called
with arguments, only the named macros are affected.

   The expansion of `traceon' and `traceoff' is void.

   Whenever a traced macro is called and the arguments have been
collected, the call is displayed.  If the expansion of the macro call
is not void, the expansion can be displayed after the call.  The output
is printed directly on the standard error output.

     define(`foo', `Hello World.')
     =>
     define(`echo', `$@')
     =>
     traceon(`foo', `echo')
     =>
     foo
     error-->m4trace: -1- foo -> `Hello World.'
     =>Hello World.
     echo(gnus, and gnats)
     error-->m4trace: -1- echo(`gnus', `and gnats') -> ``gnus',`and gnats''
     =>gnus,and gnats

   The number between dashes is the depth of the expansion.  It is one
most of the time, signifying an expansion at the outermost level, but it
increases when macro arguments contain unquoted macro calls.

   *Note Debug Levels:: for information on controlling the details of
the display.


File: m4.info,  Node: Debug Levels,  Next: Debug Output,  Prev: Trace,  Up: Debugging

Controlling debugging output
============================

   The `-d' option to `m4' controls the amount of details presented,
when using the macros described in the preceding sections.

   The FLAGS following the option can be one or more of the following:

`t'
     Trace all macro calls made in this invocation of `m4'.

`a'
     Show the actual arguments in each macro call.  This applies to all
     macro calls if the `t' flag is used, otherwise only the macros
     covered by calls of `traceon'.

`e'
     Show the expansion of each macro call, if it is not void.  This
     applies to all macro calls if the `t' flag is used, otherwise only
     the macros covered by calls of `traceon'.

`q'
     Quote actual arguments and macro expansions in the display with the
     current quotes.

`c'
     Show several trace lines for each macro call.  A line is shown
     when the macro is seen, but before the arguments are collected; a
     second line when the arguments have been collected and a third
     line after the call has completed.

`x'
     Add a unique `macro call id' to each line of the trace output.
     This is useful in connection with the `c' flag above.

`f'
     Show the name of the current input file in each trace output line.

`l'
     Show the the current input line number in each trace output line.

`p'
     Print a message when a named file is found through the path search
     mecanism (*note Search Path::.), giving the actual filename used.

`i'
     Print a message each time the current input file is changed,
     giving file name and input line number.

`V'
     A shorthand for all of the above flags.

   If no flags are specified with the `-d' option, the default is
`aeq'. The examples in the previous two sections assumed the default
flags.

   There is a built-in macro `debugmode', which allows on-the-fly
control of the debugging output format:

     debugmode(opt FLAGS)

The argument FLAGS should be a subset of the letters listed above. As
special cases, if the argument starts with a `+', the flags are added
to the current debug flags, and if it starts with a `-', they are
removed.  If no argument is present, the debugging flags are set to
zero (as if no `-d' was given), and with an empty argument the flags
are reset to the default.


File: m4.info,  Node: Debug Output,  Prev: Debug Levels,  Up: Debugging

Saving debugging output
=======================

   Debug and tracing output can be redirected to files using either the
`-o' option to `m4', or with the built-in macro `debugfile':

     debugfile(opt FILENAME)

will send all further debug and trace output to FILENAME.  If FILENAME
is empty, debug and trace output are discarded and if `debugfile' is
called without any arguments, debug and trace output are sent to the
standard error output.


File: m4.info,  Node: Input Control,  Next: File Inclusion,  Prev: Debugging,  Up: Top

Input control
*************

   This chapter describes various built-in macros for controlling the
input to `m4'.

* Menu:

* Dnl::                         Deleting whitespace in input
* Changequote::                 Changing the quote characters
* Changecom::                   Changing the comment delimiters
* M4wrap::                      Saving input until end of input


File: m4.info,  Node: Dnl,  Next: Changequote,  Prev: Input Control,  Up: Input Control

Deleting whitespace in input
============================

   The built-in `dnl' reads and discards all characters, up to and
including the first newline:

     dnl

and it is often used in connection with `define', to remove the newline
that follow the call to `define'.  Thus

     define(`foo', `Macro `foo'.')dnl A very simple macro, indeed.
     foo
     =>Macro foo.

   The input up to and including the next newline is discarded, as
opposed to the way comments are treated (*note Comments::.).

   Usually, `dnl' is immediately followed by an end of line or some
other whitespace.  GNU `m4' will produce a warning diagnostic if `dnl'
is followed by an open parenthesis.  In this case, `dnl' will collect
and process all arguments, looking for a matching close parenthesis.
All predictable side effects resulting from this collection will take
place.  `dnl' will return no output.  The input following the matching
close parenthesis up to and including the next newline, on whatever
line containing it, will still be discarded.


File: m4.info,  Node: Changequote,  Next: Changecom,  Prev: Dnl,  Up: Input Control

Changing the quote characters
=============================

   The default quote delimiters can be changed with the built-in
`changequote':

     changequote(opt START, opt END)

where START is the new start-quote delimiter and END is the new
end-quote delimiter.  If any of the arguments are missing, the default
quotes (``' and `'') are used instead of the void arguments.

   The expansion of `changequote' is void.

     changequote([,])
     =>
     define([foo], [Macro [foo].])
     =>
     foo
     =>Macro foo.

   If no single character is appropriate, START and END can be of any
length.

     changequote([[,]])
     =>
     define([[foo]], [[Macro [[[foo]]].]])
     =>
     foo
     =>Macro [foo].

   Changing the quotes to the empty strings will effectively disable the
quoting mechanism, leaving no way to quote text.

     define(`foo', `Macro `FOO'.')
     =>
     changequote(,)
     =>
     foo
     =>Macro `FOO'.
     `foo'
     =>`Macro `FOO'.'

   There is no way in `m4' to quote a string containing an unmatched
left quote, except using `changequote' to change the current quotes.

   Neither quote string should start with a letter or `_' (underscore),
as they will be confused with names in the input.  Doing so disables
the quoting mechanism.


File: m4.info,  Node: Changecom,  Next: M4wrap,  Prev: Changequote,  Up: Input Control

Changing comment delimiters
===========================

   The default comment delimiters can be changed with the built-in
macro `changecom':

     changecom(opt START, opt END)

where START is the new start-comment delimiter and END is the new
end-comment delimiter.  If any of the arguments are void, the default
comment delimiters (`#' and newline) are used instead of the void
arguments.  The comment delimiters can be of any length.

   The expansion of `changecom' is void.

     define(`comment', `COMMENT')
     =>
     # A normal comment
     =># A normal comment
     changecom(`/*', `*/')
     =>
     # Not a comment anymore
     =># Not a COMMENT anymore
     But: /* this is a comment now */ while this is not a comment
     =>But: /* this is a comment now */ while this is not a COMMENT

   Note how comments are copied to the output, much as if they were
quoted strings.  If you want the text inside a comment expanded, quote
the start comment delimiter.

   Calling `changecom' without any arguments disables the commenting
mechanism completely.

     define(`comment', `COMMENT')
     =>
     changecom
     =>
     # Not a comment anymore
     =># Not a COMMENT anymore


File: m4.info,  Node: M4wrap,  Prev: Changecom,  Up: Input Control

Saving input
============

   It is possible to `save' some text until the end of the normal input
has been seen.  Text can be saved, to be read again by `m4' when the
normal input has been exhausted.  This feature is normally used to
initiate cleanup actions before normal exit, e.g., deleting temporary
files.

   To save input text, use the built-in `m4wrap':

     m4wrap(STRING, ...)

which stores STRING and the rest of the arguments in a safe place, to
be reread when end of input is reached.

     define(`cleanup', `This is the `cleanup' actions.
     ')
     =>
     m4wrap(`cleanup')
     =>
     This is the first and last normal input line.
     =>This is the first and last normal input line.
     ^D
     =>This is the cleanup actions.

   The saved input is only reread when the end of normal input is seen,
and not if `m4exit' is used to exit `m4'.

   It is safe to call `m4wrap' from saved text, but then the order in
which the saved text is reread is undefined.  If `m4wrap' is not used
recursively, the saved pieces of text are reread in the opposite order
in which they were saved (LIFO--last in, first out).


File: m4.info,  Node: File Inclusion,  Next: Diversions,  Prev: Input Control,  Up: Top

File inclusion
**************

   `m4' allows you to include named files at any point in the input.

* Menu:

* Include::                     Including named files
* Search Path::                 Searching for include files


File: m4.info,  Node: Include,  Next: Search Path,  Prev: File Inclusion,  Up: File Inclusion

Including named files
=====================

   There are two built-in macros in `m4' for including files:

     include(FILENAME)
     sinclude(FILENAME)

both of which cause the file named FILENAME to be read by `m4'.  When
the end of the file is reached, input is resumed from the previous
input file.

   The expansion of `include' and `sinclude' is therefore the contents
of FILENAME.

   It is an error for an `include'd file not to exist.  If you don't
want error messages about non-existent files, `sinclude' can be used to
include a file, if it exists, expanding to nothing if it does not.

     include(`no-such-file')
     =>
     error-->m4:30.include:2: can't open no-such-file: No such file or directory
     sinclude(`no-such-file')
     =>

   Assume in the following that the file `incl.m4' contains the lines:
     Include file start
     foo
     Include file end

Normally file inclusion is used to insert the contents of a file into
the input stream.  The contents of the file will be read by `m4' and
macro calls in the file will be expanded:

     define(`foo', `FOO')
     =>
     include(`incl.m4')
     =>Include file start
     =>FOO
     =>Include file end
     =>

   The fact that `include' and `sinclude' expand to the contents of the
file can be used to define macros that operate on entire files. Here is
an example, which defines `bar' to expand to the contents of `incl.m4':

     define(`bar', include(`incl.m4'))
     =>
     This is `bar':  >>>bar<<<
     =>This is bar:  >>>Include file start
     =>foo
     =>Include file end
     =><<<

   This use of `include' is not trivial, though, as files can contain
quotes, commas and parentheses, which can interfere with the way the
`m4' parser works.

   The builtin macros `include' and `sinclude' are recognized only when
given arguments.


File: m4.info,  Node: Search Path,  Prev: Include,  Up: File Inclusion

Searching for include files
===========================

   GNU `m4' allows included files to be found in other directories than
the current working directory.

   If a file is not found in the current working directory, and the file
name is not absolute, the file will be looked for in a specified search
path.  First, the directories specified with the `-I' option will be
searched, in the order found on the command line.  Second, if the
`M4PATH' environment variable is set, it is expected to contain a
colon-separated list of directories, which will be searched in order.

   If the automatic search for include-files causes trouble, the `p'
debug flag (*note Debug Levels::.) can help isolate the problem.