1 /* 2 3 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE 4 ************************** 5 6 7 Copyright (C) 1999 Todd Martin Miller 8 tmiller@toddmiller.com 9 10 Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies 11 of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. 12 13 Preamble 14 ======== 15 16 The licenses for most software are designed to take away your 17 freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public 18 License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free 19 software--to make sure the software is free for all its users. 20 21 When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not 22 price. 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For software which is copyrighted 260 by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software 261 Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision 262 will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of 263 all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing 264 and reuse of software generally. 265 266 267 NO WARRANTY 268 269 11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO 270 WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE 271 LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT 272 HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT 273 WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT 274 NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND 275 FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE 276 QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE 277 PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY 278 SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. 279 280 12. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN 281 WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY 282 MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE 283 LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, 284 INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR 285 INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF 286 DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU 287 OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY 288 OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN 289 ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. 290 291 */ 292 293 unsigned char TextLinesPerDescriptor = 14; 294 295 struct TextDescriptor { 296 char *line; 297 } TextDesc[][13] = { 298 {"Hydrogen found in 1766 by" ,"Henry Cavendish as a gas", 299 "used for welding purposes" ,"and reduction in chemistry.", 300 "Hydrogen, produced by six-" ,"ty two natural wells and", 301 "from crude oil, explodes" ,"when ignited in oxygen to", 302 "form water. It is found" ,"as the acid cationic ion of", 303 "many anionic oxide ions" ,"and as the hydride of alkali", 304 "elements."}, 305 306 {"Helium was discovered in " ,"1782 by Rutherford in ", 307 "England. It is used as an" ,"industrial inert atmosphere", 308 "and is found in natural" ,"wells. Helium is a diatomic", 309 "gas that is useful as an" ,"gas ionized for utilitiy ", 310 "lighting. Difficult to" ,"detect it was the extra", 311 "volume after oxygen and" ,"nitrogen had been removed", 312 "from air."}, 313 314 {"Lithium was discovered in" ,"1861. Its major uses are in", 315 "batteries and as a reducing" ,"agent in chemistry. Being", 316 "one of the alkali elements" ,"it forms a stable positive", 317 "cation used in salts. Found" ,"mainly in free rock and", 318 "electrolitically reduced it" ,"represents an active solid", 319 "which can be utilized. In" ,"addition it is produced as", 320 "in other metals production."}, 321 322 {"Beryellium is an alkaline" ,"earth metal found in many", 323 "salts. Isolated in 1828 by" ,"Wohler is is a hard metal", 324 "with a bright metallic luster.","It has some use as an", 325 "metal oxide. It is found" ,"mainly in beryl and used in", 326 "making refractory refractory" ,"crucibles and where other", 327 "hard metals are useful. It" ,"was also glucimium and ", 328 "often states sweet in salts."}, 329 330 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 331 {"Boron was isolated by Sir" ,"Humprey Davey in 1808. It is", 332 "a trivalent element, it is" ,"a semi-conducting metal other", 333 "elements in Group III are" ,"metals. Boron occurs natural-", 334 "ly as boric acid H3BO3 and as" ,"borax (Na2B4O7 10H2O), espe-", 335 "cially in arid parts of" ,"California and Tibet. Borax", 336 "is used in glass making, as a" ,"cleanser in the solder of", 337 "brass and a water softner."}, 338 339 {"Carbon is found naturally in" ,"three distinct forms: coal,", 340 "diamond, and graphite. Known" ,"from ancient times, it combines", 341 "in tetravalent fashion in" ,"millions of compounds which", 342 "are studied within organic" ,"chemistry. With hydrogen and", 343 "oxygen it forms long chains," ,"binding to itself like no", 344 "other atom. Animal life is" ,"based on carbon and so are", 345 "plastics and polymers."}, 346 347 {"Nitrogen was first prepared by" ,"Rutherford in 1772 and it was", 348 "Scheele who showed it to be" ,"part of air. Lavoisier was", 349 "the first to regard it as an" ,"element. Nitrogen is also an", 350 "essential element in living" ,"organisms and is found in ", 351 "many minerals. It is the" ,"major component of air, where", 352 "where it exists as a diatomic" ," gas. It is also important in", 353 "ammonia and explosives."}, 354 355 {"Oxygen was first prepared in" ,"1774 by Joseph Priestly from", 356 "from mercuric oxide. Oxygen" ,"is a diatomic gas as present", 357 "in the atmosphere (20.95%%)." ,"Oxygen is present in many", 358 "ionic compounds and is" ,"associated with the burning", 359 "or oxidation of substances." ,"It is a constituent of many", 360 "compounds present in living" ,"organisms. It also occurs", 361 "triatomically as ozone."}, 362 363 {"Flourine occurs abundantly" ,"in fluorite, cryolite, and", 364 "in fluorapatite. Flourine is" ,"also found in sea water,", 365 "bones, and in teeth. It was " ,"first isolated in 1886 by", 366 "Moissan. It is prepared" ,"through the electrolysis of", 367 "molten potassium hydrogen" ,"flouride and is used in many", 368 "inert hydrocarbons for" ,"refrigeration and as an inert", 369 "liquid."}, 370 371 {"Neon, meaning new, was first" ,"isolated from air by Ramsey", 372 "and Travers who seperated" ,"many of the nobel gases from", 373 "the air and identified them" ,"through the use of a spectro-", 374 "meter. It is characterized" ,"by its inertness and is used", 375 "chiefly in neon lighting" ,"where an electrical discharge", 376 "produces a red-orange color." ,"It has been condensed and can", 377 "be used as an inert gas."}, 378 379 {"Sodium was first isolated by" ,"Davey in 1807 by electrolysis", 380 "of caustic soda where it was" ,"discerned from potassium. As", 381 "a constituent of many ionic" ,"salts, such as NaCl (common", 382 "table salt), NaHCO3 (baking" ,"soda), NaNO3 (saltpeter), etc.", 383 "it is a very common element," ,"the sixth most abundant on", 384 "earth. It is never found in" ,"its raw form but can be made", 385 "by electroylsis of salts."}, 386 387 {"Magnesium is a very abundant" ,"element. It never occurs in", 388 "uncombined conditions in" ,"nature, however, it is found", 389 "combined in many rocks and" ,"in sea water. It was first", 390 "isolated in 1808 by Davey." ,"It is produced uncombined by", 391 "the electrolysis of molten" ,"magnesium salts. It is a", 392 "light silvery metal which" ,"readily ignites in air and", 393 "has found uses."}, 394 395 {"Aluminum has been known since" ,"ancient times, however, Wohler", 396 "is given credit for first" ,"isolating it in 1827. It is", 397 "the most abundant metal in" ,"the earth's crust. Aluminum", 398 "is obtained by the Hall" ,"process via reduction of", 399 "molten Al2O3. It forms a" ,"protective oxide coating when", 400 "exposed to air. Aluminum is" ,"light, durable and resists ", 401 "corrosion."}, 402 403 {"Silicon was discovered in 1823" ,"It is the second most abundant", 404 "element in the earth's crust." ,"Silicon is used in making", 405 "glass, cement and electronic" ,"devices. Silicon is able to", 406 "form chains like carbon but of" ,"a limited length. Granite,", 407 "gniess, sandstone, shale," ,"clay, and marl all contain", 408 "large, percentages of Silicon." ,"Silicon is also used to make", 409 "important abrasives."}, 410 411 {"Phosphorus was discovered in" ,"Hamburg, Germany by Brand in", 412 "1669. Three allotropic forms" ,"are known: yellow, red and", 413 "black. Phosphorus is never" ,"never found to occur free in", 414 "nature and is captured from" ,"phosphate rock (Ca3(PO4)2)", 415 "and apatite (phosphate rock" ,"mixed with impurities) and is", 416 "mined to produce the pure" ,"phosphate which is used to", 417 "produce matches, etc."}, 418 419 {"Sulfur or Brimstone has been" ,"known since ancient times. It", 420 "is used in matches, sulfuric" ,"acid, the vulcanization of", 421 "rubber, etc. Sulfur is" ,"divalent and hydrogen sulfide", 422 "the analogue of water has" ,"the smell of rotten eggs.", 423 "Sulfur is used as an anti-" ,"septic. Sulfur occurs in", 424 "iron pyrites, galena, gypsum" ,"and epsom salts. It is also", 425 "used in making gunpowder."}, 426 427 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 428 {"Chlorine was discovered in" ,"1774 by Scheele and named in", 429 "1810 by Davey. It is found" ,"in nature only in combined", 430 "form and is most common as" ,"common table salt. Cholone", 431 "gas is produced through" ,"electrolysis of NaCl and is", 432 "used to clean drinking water," ,"swimming pools, as a bleaching", 433 "agent, and in textiles." ,"Chlorine gas (Cl2) is a", 434 "respiratory irritant."}, 435 436 {"Argon, most abundant of the" ,"nobel gases, it is a component", 437 "of air. Chemically inert it" ,"finds use in discharge tubes", 438 "where it produces the green" ,"glow associated with neon", 439 "lights. It was discovered" ,"by Rayleigh and Ramsay in 1894", 440 "and is prepared by the" ,"factional distillation of air.", 441 "It is used as an inert" ,"atmosphere in welding and to", 442 "stir molten metals."}, 443 444 {"Potassium, named after potash," ,"given the symbol K due to the", 445 "Latin name kalium, was first" ,"discovered in 1807 by Davey and", 446 "was the first element dis-" ,"covered by electrolysis. It", 447 "is the seventh most abundant" ,"element in the earth's crust.", 448 "Potassium is used in table" ,"salt where sodium is a con-", 449 "cern. The pure metal de-" ,"rived from saline lakes, kelp", 450 "and wood ashes."}, 451 452 {"Calcium was named for the" ,"Latin calx meaning lime. It", 453 "was discovered in 1808 by" ,"Davey through the use of elec-", 454 "trolysis. Calcium is the" ,"fifth most abundant element in", 455 "the earth's crust. It is" ,"a constituent of bones, shells", 456 "and is an essential element" ,"in animals. It occurs in na-", 457 "ture in combined form in" ,"limestone (CaCO3), gypsum ", 458 "(CaSO4) 2H2O, and fluorite."}, 459 460 {"Scandium was named after" ,"Scandinavia in 1879 in the", 461 "minerals euxenite and" ,"gadolinite by Nilson. It oc-", 462 "curs in minute qantities in" ,"many minerals. Scandium has", 463 "a low density and a higher" ,"boiling point than aluminum", 464 "which makes it of interest in" ,"special cases. The first pure", 465 "scandium was prepared in 1960." ,"Its isotopes are known by-", 466 "products of nuclear reactors."}, 467 468 {"Titanium was discovered in" ,"1791 by Gregor. It is light", 469 "and hard making it the choice" ,"metal for most high perform-", 470 "ance equipment. It is the" ,"ninth most abundant element in", 471 "the earth's crust. Using the" ,"Kroll process the metal is", 472 "produced by reduction with" ,"magnesium. Titanium has ex-", 473 "cellent corrosion resistance," ,"it burns in air and nitrogen,", 474 "thus it is useful in alloys."}, 475 476 {"Vanadium was discovered in" ,"1801 and redisovered in 1830.", 477 "Named after the scandinavian" ,"goddess Vanadis for its multi-", 478 "colored compounds it is used" ,"chiefly in alloys of steel and", 479 "used as a bonding agent be-" ,"tween steel and titanium.", 480 "Vanadium is found in petro-" ,"leum and is produced com-", 481 "mercially by a variant of" ,"the Kroll process. First high", 482 "purity vanadium, 1927."}, 483 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 484 {"Chromium was discovered in" ,"1797 by Vauquelin. It is found", 485 "chiefly in chromite (FeCr2O4)" ,"and is extracted by reducing", 486 "the oxide with aluminum." ,"It is used in stainless steel", 487 "and to harden steel. Chromiums" ,"are highly colored and used to", 488 "make glass. Its oxides are" ,"used as oxidizers in explosive", 489 "and especially useful in pig-" ,"ments, offering a wide variety", 490 "of colors."}, 491 492 {"Manganese, named due to a con-" ,"fusion with magnetic iron, was", 493 "discovered in 1774. Maganese" ,"gives steel a pliant quality", 494 "yet does not detract from its" ,"hardness. It is an essential", 495 "mineral, the absence of which" ,"produces brittle bones. Much", 496 "manganese is used in making" ,"dry cell batteries as MnO2 and", 497 "manganese activates many en-" ,"zymes within the bodies of ", 498 "animals."}, 499 500 {"Iron was known to the ancients" ,"and is used commercially on a", 501 "vast scale. The core of the" ,"earth is thought to be", 502 "composed of iron and iron is" ,"fourth most abundant element", 503 "in the earth's crust. Iron is" ,"commonly found in materials", 504 "which are magnetic, such as" ,"magnetite (Fe3O4). Pig and", 505 "wrought iron are compounds of" ,"iron and carbon and traces of", 506 "S, Si, Mn and P."}, 507 508 {"Cobalt was discovered by Brand" ,"in 1735. Cobalt is named for", 509 "kobold, meaning `goblin' for" ,"early metalurgists found it", 510 "difficult to smelt. It often" ,"occurs with As and S, an", 511 "example is cobaltite (CoAsS)" ,"Cobalt chromium steels are", 512 "were in high speed cutting" ,"tools, cobalt is chiefly known", 513 "for its alloys. Cobalt is" ,"used as an oxide to give the", 514 "color blue to glass and pots."}, 515 516 {"Nickel was discovered in 1751." ,"It is named for its appearance", 517 "in coppor ores as false copper" ,"or kupfernickel. Nickel is", 518 "almost always associated with" ,"cobalt in nature. Most of it", 519 "comes to us as a by-product of" ,"the refining of copper and", 520 "silver. Nickel is used as an" ,"inert covering for many metals", 521 "and used both as plating for" ,"its luster and in factories", 522 "for its protective abilities."}, 523 524 {"Copper was named for cuprum," ,"the ancient name for Cyprus", 525 "which has many copper mines." ,"Copper can be found in almost", 526 "a pure state. Pure copper is" ,"very ductile, malleable, and", 527 "flexible. It is second only" ,"to silver as a conductor of", 528 "electricity. Copper is also" ,"used in making alloys, brass", 529 "and bronze (the penny) being" ,"the most well known. Copper", 530 "has uses to prevent corrosion."}, 531 532 {"Zinc is found in brass, and" ,"was known to the ancients for", 533 "it is an easy metal to smelt." ,"Zinc is used not only as a", 534 "coating for other metals which" ,"provides corrosion resistance,", 535 "but also as a cathode in" ,"batteries. Zinc has a bluish", 536 "color and is a lustorus metal." ,"The main ores of zinc are ZnS", 537 "(sphalerite), ZnO (zincite)," ,"ZnCO3 (smithsonite), and", 538 "Zn2SiO4 (willemite)."}, 539 540 {"Gallium is a rare element," ,"discovered in 1875 by Lecoq de", 541 "Boisbaudran and named for the" ,"Latin name for France: Gallia.", 542 "It is found in ores of zinc," ,"aluminum, and iron. It is", 543 "obtained from distillation of" ,"zinc. It is a shining white", 544 "metal of very low melting pt." ,"In addition to a series of", 545 "salts, in which it is tri-" ,"valent, it forms a bivalent", 546 "second series as well."}, 547 548 {"Germanium was discovered in" ,"1886 by Winkler. It was found", 549 "to fulfill the predictions of" ,"Mendeleev for the properties", 550 "of an undiscovered element" ,"which should follow silicon.", 551 "Germanium is a brittle, crys-" ,"talline, metallic substance.", 552 "It forms two oxides, GeO and" ,"GeO2, each giving rise to a", 553 "series of compounds which" ,"resemble compounds of tin", 554 "more closely than any others."}, 555 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 556 {"Arsenic and its compounds have" ,"been known from the ealiest", 557 "times. It is named after the" ,"Greek arsenikos, meaning male", 558 "which results from an early" ,"belief that metals had sexes.", 559 "Realgar (As2S2) and orpiment" ,"(As2S3) are found in nature", 560 "and have been used as pigments" ,"since the time of Aristotle.", 561 "Arsenopyrite or mispickel" ,"(FeAsS) is the most abundant", 562 "mineral for obtaining arsenic."}, 563 564 {"Selenium, named for the Greek" ,"selene, meaning moon, was dis-", 565 "covered in 1817 by Berzelius." ,"It is frequently found in", 566 "small quantities in natural" ,"sulfur. It is a conductor of", 567 "electricity, and its conduc-" ,"tivity increases with with the", 568 "intensity of light. Selenium" ,"finds many uses in electronics", 569 "and is also obtained from the" ,"refining of copper. It is a", 570 "metal and a non-metal."}, 571 572 {"Bromine, meaning stench, is " ,"a red liquid at room tempera-", 573 "ture. Ballard first isolated" ,"bromine in 1826 from the salt", 574 "solution of bromides left" ,"after precipitation of NaCl", 575 "from potash deposits. Bromine" ,"vaporizes readily at into a", 576 "redish-brown gas which is" ,"irritating to the eyes and to", 577 "the throat. Bromine is found" ,"also in seawater, however", 578 "little is extracted from it."}, 579 580 {"Krypton is a nobel gas which" ,"was also discovered, along", 581 "with neon and argon, by Ramsay" ,"and Travers through the use of", 582 "a spectrometer on the remain-" ,"ing fractions of distilled air", 583 "by the two in 1898. Krypton" ,"is inert and the orange-red", 584 "spectral line is used as the" ,"1/1,650,763.73 m to determine", 585 "the standard meter of the" ,"metric system. Some krypton" 586 ,"compounds have been made."}, 587 588 {"Rubidium was discovered by" ,"Bunsen and Kirchoff in 1861 by", 589 "the use of the spectroscope" ,"they invented in the mineral", 590 "lepidolite. It was named for" ,"the deep red color of its", 591 "spectral line. The element" ,"itself is silvery white with a", 592 "metallic luster. Thought to" ,"be the sixteenth most abun-", 593 "ant element in the earth's" ,"crust, it is resistant to ", 594 "poisoning by certain elements."}, 595 596 {"Strontium was named after" ,"Strontian, a town in Scotland.", 597 "It was discovered by Crawford" ,"in 1790. It is the least", 598 "abundant of the alkaline earth" ,"metals. Celestite (SrSO4) and", 599 "strontianite (SrCO3) are the" ,"main minerals in which it is", 600 "found. There are few uses ex-" ,"cept as a nuclear-electric", 601 "power source. Strontium 90 is" ,"a nuclear fall-out material", 602 "and poses a health risk."}, 603 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 604 {"Yttrium was discovered by" ,"Gadolin in 1794. It was named", 605 "for Ytterby, a village in" ,"Sweden, the mineral yttria", 606 "yielded erbium, terbium," ,"ytterbium and yttrium. It has", 607 "a silvery-metallic luster. A" ,"compound of yttrium is used in", 608 "the red phosphor of television" ,"tubes, another in microwave,", 609 "filters, and on in sonic" ,"transducers.",""}, 610 611 {"Zirconium was discovered in" ,"1789 by Klaproth. It is pro-", 612 "duced from zircon (ZrSiO4) in" ,"North Carolina, Florida,", 613 "Norway, Australia, and Brazil." ,"In Brazil baddeleyite is an", 614 "important source of zirconia," ,"found with iron and silicon.", 615 "Zirconia (ZrO2) is crystalline" ,"and clear, being sold as a", 616 "gemstone. Zirconium itself is" ,"used as a refactory material", 617 "and for making crucibles from."}, 618 619 {"Niobium was discovered in" ,"1801. The original name,", 620 "columbium, given to the miner-" ,"al was dropped in 1950 because", 621 "the element was discovered in" ,"England from an American ", 622 "sample. Niobe was the mytho-" ,"logical daughter of Tantalus.", 623 "Niobium is a shiney, white," ,"soft, and ductile metal, usu-", 624 "ally found in combination with" ,"tantalum in the form of colum-", 625 "bates and tantalates."}, 626 627 {"Molybdenum, the name comes" ,"from Greek to describe a su-", 628 "perficial resemblance to lead." ,"Scheele discovered it in 1778,", 629 "it was first purified in 1782." ,"Molybdenum occurs chiefly in", 630 "molybdenite (MoS2) and" ,"wulfenite (PbMoO4). From MoO3", 631 "and hydrogen reduction the" ,"metal is produced. It is den-", 632 "se and silvery. It is used to" ,"produce molybdenum steel which", 633 "is hard, heat and rust resist."}, 634 635 {"Technetium was falsly discov-" ,"ered in 1925 in Berlin and", 636 "named masurium. It was later" ,"named technetium, meaning ar-", 637 "tificial, by Perrier and Segre" ,"in Italy in 1937. Perrier and", 638 "Segre found the metal in a" ,"sample of molybdenum which had", 639 "been bombarded with neutrons." ,"Natural sources have not been", 640 "found. Technetium is a sil-" ,"very-gray metal. Technetium", 641 "is radio active."}, 642 643 644 {"Ruthenium was discovered in" ,"1844 by Klaus. It is named", 645 "for Russia as by the Latin" ,"word for Russia: Ruthenia.", 646 "Ruthenium is hard and brittle" ,"and below fifteen percent com-", 647 "position is an excellent hard-" ,"ener for steel alloys. It is", 648 "not attacked by aqua regia." ,"Ruthenium is attacked by", 649 "halogens, hydroxides, etcetera" ,"and it forms a volitile oxide,", 650 "RuO4, that is yellow."}, 651 652 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 653 {"Rhodium was discovered in 1803" ,"and named for rhodon which is", 654 "Greek for rose, the color that" ,"it gives to its solutions. It", 655 "was discovered by Wollaston in" ,"crude platinum ore. It is", 656 "used mostly as an alloying" ,"agent in Pt and Pa. It gives", 657 "a lustrous, hard coating to" ,"metals and is used for silver-", 658 "ware and camera parts, as a" ,"mirror surface on glass, and", 659 "in jewelry and electrodes."}, 660 661 {"Palladium was discovered in" ,"1803 by Wollaston. It was", 662 "named after the asteroid" ,"Pallas, discovered at the same", 663 "time. Palladium is found with" ,"Platinum. It is free from ", 664 "tarnish and corrosion resis-" ,"tant. It is incorporated into", 665 "electrical contacts, jewelry," ,"and percision instruments. It", 666 "is a catalyst for hydrogena-" ,"tion and dehydrogenation. It", 667 "is used as a stiffener in Au."}, 668 669 {"Silver gets its symbol (Ag)" ,"from the Roman name for the", 670 "metal: argentum. A precious" ,"metal, it is found native and", 671 "in cerargyrite (AgCl), argent-" ,"ite (Ag2S), prousite (Ag3AsS3)", 672 "and in copper and lead ores." ,"Silver has the highest elec-", 673 "trical and thermal conductiv-" ,"ity of all metals. Most is", 674 "used in photography and den-" ,"tistry and in electronics.", 675 ""}, 676 677 {"Cadmium was discovered by" ,"Stromeyer in 1817 from an im-", 678 "purity in calamine (ZnCO3)" ,"named in Greek Kadmeia and", 679 "Latin cadmia. It is very of-" ,"ten associated with zinc ores.", 680 "Cadmium sulfide (CdS)," ,"greenockite, is used as a", 681 "yellow pigment. Most cadmium" ,"is obtained from zinc, copper,", 682 "and lead ores. It is used in" ,"electroplating, Ni-Cd batter-", 683 "ies and in nuclear reactors."}, 684 685 {"Indium was discovered by Reich" ,"and Richter in 1863. It is", 686 "named for the blue line in its" ,"spectrum. It is used in", 687 "engine bearings, in transis-" ,"tors, and as a `glue' for", 688 "glass. It is used also in" ,"batteries and photoconductors", 689 "and makes a good mirror sur-" ,"face on glass that is more", 690 "corrosion resistant than" ,"silver.", 691 " "}, 692 693 {"Tin is found chiefly in bronze" ,"of ancient times and discerned", 694 "from lead at the beginning of" ,"the christian era. It is", 695 "found mainly in tin oxide," ,"called cassiterite or tin-", 696 "stone, the principle ore. Its" ,"Latin name was stannum, from", 697 "which comes its symbol. Tin" ,"changes allotropic form below", 698 "13.2 degrees celcius and" ,"crumbles to powder (tin dis-", 699 "ease)."}, 700 701 {"Antimony, the anti-mono metal," ,"not found alone, has been", 702 "known for centuries. Stibnite" ,"(Sb2S3) is the common ore.", 703 "Antimony is a silvery and" ,"shiney metal. It is used in", 704 "infrared detectors, diodes and" ,"hall effect devices. It is", 705 "also an alloying agent to in-" ,"crease hardness and strength", 706 "of type metal, Babbit metal" ,"and pewter. Paints, glass and", 707 "pottery are other uses."}, 708 709 {"Tellurium was discovered in" ,"1782 by Muller von ", 710 "Reichenstein, named by " ,"Kloproth after tellus, meaning", 711 "earth, and first isolated in" ,"1798. Sometimes tellurium is", 712 "found free, but more frequent-" ,"ly combined with gold, silver,", 713 "lead, and bismuth. It has a" ,"silver white appearance and a", 714 "metallic luster. Tellurium" ,"is used in blasting caps, ce-", 715 "ramics and thermoelectics."}, 716 717 {"Iodine was discovered by" ,"Courtios in 1811. It is named", 718 "for the Greek iodes meaning" ,"violet color. Iodine is ab-", 719 "sorbed by certain seaweeds and" ,"from the ashes of these it was", 720 "discovered. It occurs in the" ,"deposits of Chile saltpeter", 721 "(NaNO3). Most Iodine is used" ,"in salts for dying, some as an", 722 "antiseptic."," "," "}, 723 724 {"Xenon, from the Greek meaning" ,"`stranger' was discovered in", 725 "1898 by Ramsay and Travers" ,"with a spectrometer as part of", 726 "the fractions remaining from" ,"the distillation of air. It", 727 "is the rarest of the inert" ,"gases. Xenon is not as inert", 728 "as it might seem from its" ,"periodic group. More than", 729 "eighty xenon compounds are" ,"known. It is used in high ", 730 "speed flash bulbs."}, 731 732 {"Cesium was discovered in 1860" ,"by Bunsen and Kirchoff with a", 733 "spectrometer in mineral water." ,"It was named from caesius for", 734 "sky-blue, the color of its" ,"salts. It is the softest", 735 "metal and liquid at twenty-" ,"eight degrees celcius. It is", 736 "extremely reactive and finds" ,"use in vacuum tubes, atomic", 737 "clocks, in photoelectric cells" ,"and as a hydrogenation", 738 "catalyst."}, 739 740 {"Barium was discovered in 1808" ,"by Sir Humphrey Davey and was", 741 "named after the Greek barys," ,"for heavy. It is never found", 742 "native, found instead in bar-" ,"ite (BaSO4) and witherite (Ba", 743 "CO3), the former being more" ,"plentiful. Barium sulfate is", 744 "used as an X-ray tracer and" ,"barium nitrate gives fireworks", 745 "a green color. Barium itself" ,"is used in radio tubes, and in", 746 "the porcelain of spark plugs."}, 747 748 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 749 {"Lanthanum was discovered in" ,"1839 by Mosander and named", 750 "after the Greek: lanthanein," ,"to lie hidden. It occurs with", 751 "other rare earth elements in" ,"minerals such as apatite and", 752 "monazite. It is twenty-eight" ,"in the order of abundance of", 753 "the elements of the earth's" ,"crust. It is used in misch", 754 "metal and cigarette-lighter" ,"flints are made from this", 755 "alloy."}, 756 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 757 {"Cerium was discovered in 1803" ,"by Berzelius and Hisinger and", 758 ",independently by Klaproth." ,"It is a soft, gray metallic", 759 "element that is the most abun-" ,"dant of the rare earth metals.", 760 "Cerium is twenty-sixth in nat-" ,"ural abundance of the elements", 761 "in the earth's crust. It is" ,"easier to separate than the", 762 "other rare earth elements. It" ,"is used for lighter flints, in", 763 "glass, in photoelectric cells."}, 764 765 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 766 {"Praseodymium was disocovered" ,"in 1885 by Welsbach after the", 767 "separation from neodynium. It" ,"corrodes rapidly in moist air.", 768 "It was named for the Greek: " ,"prasios, green (for its green", 769 "trivalent salts and didymos" ,"which means twin, as it was to", 770 "neodynium. The element is" ,"used in misch metal (lighter-", 771 "flints, as a deoxidizer in" ,"alloys and vacuum tubes, and", 772 "to tint welder's goggles."}, 773 774 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 775 {"Neodymium was discovered in" ,"1885 by von Welsbach and named", 776 "for the Greek `new twin' for" ,"it was so long named didymium,", 777 "thought to be an element, but" ,"actually containing praseodym-", 778 "ium. It is a silvery metallic" ,"element. It forms rose-red or", 779 "reddish-violet trivalent salt." ,"It is used in the glass of", 780 "color television tubes and in" ,"lasers. It is also used as a", 781 "colorant for enamels."}, 782 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 783 {"Promethium was discovered in" ,"1926 through the use of spec-", 784 "troscopic analysis, the" ,"element itself was not con-", 785 "firmed until 1945 as it was" ,"radioactive. It was named for", 786 "Prometheus, who stole fire for" ,"man from the gods. It seems", 787 "not to be found in the earth's" ,"crust in any appreciable per-", 788 "centage. Its salts are lumin-" ,"escent due to their radioact-", 789 "ivity."}, 790 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 791 {"Samarium was discovered in" ,"1879 by Boisbaudran and named", 792 "for the mineral, samarskite," ,"which was named after a", 793 "Russian mine official. It has" ,"a bright silvery luster and is", 794 "reasonably stable in air. It" ,"occurs with many other rare", 795 "earth elements in monazite and" ,"bastnasite. It has been used", 796 "in optics to filter the infra-" ,"red and in carbon-arc lighting", 797 "for motion pictures."}, 798 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 799 {"Europium was named for Europe." ,"It was discovered through the", 800 "use of a spectrometer by" ,"Demarcay in 1901. It is a", 801 "silvery metal which is one of" ,"the least abundant of the rare", 802 "earth elements, it ranks 50th." ,"It occurs in monazite as a", 803 "phosphate and in bastnaesite" ,"with other rare earth metals.", 804 "It is used on color television" ,"tubes, and in control rods for", 805 "nuclear power applications."}, 806 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 807 {"Gadolinium was discovered in" ,"1880 by Marignac, it was named", 808 "for the chemist Gadolin. It" ,"is a silvery white metal of", 809 "the rare earths. It is found" ,"in monazite and bastnasite. It", 810 "dissolves in acids and reacts" ,"slowly with oxygen and water.", 811 "It is used in magnets, elec-" ,"tronics, refractories, and in", 812 "alloys with iron for magneto-" ,"optic recording devices, and", 813 "in nuclear control rods."}, 814 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 815 {"Terbium was discovered in 1843" ,"by Mosander. It is named for", 816 "the Swedish village of Ytter-" ,"by. It is a member of the", 817 "rare earths. It is reasonably" ,"stable in air. It is a", 818 "silvery-gray metal which is" ,"soft, malleable, and ductile.", 819 "It is found in cerite, and in" ,"gadolinite and with other rare", 820 "earth metals. It is useful in" ,"lasers and masers, and also in", 821 "television picture tubes."}, 822 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 823 {"Dysprosium was discovered in" ,"1886 by Boisbaudran. Its most", 824 "important commercial sources" ,"are monazite where it occurs", 825 "as a phosphate and bastnasite." ,"It is a metallic, hard, with a", 826 "bright silvery luster. It is" ,"relatively stable in air. It", 827 "is 42nd in abundance among the" ,"elements in the earth's crust.", 828 "It has a thermal neutron ab-" ,"sorption cross-section for its", 829 "application in nuclear power."}, 830 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 831 {"Holmium was discovered in 1878" ,"by Cleve. It was named after", 832 "the Latin name for Stockholm:" ,"Holmia. It was discovered", 833 "through the use of a spectro-" ,"meter. Holmium occrs in gado-", 834 "linite, monazite, and in other" ,"rare earth minerals. It is ", 835 "one of the least abundant rare" ,"earths, ranking 55th in occur-", 836 "ance. It is one of the most" ,"paramagnetic substances. Few", 837 "uses have are known for it."}, 838 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 839 {"Erbium was discovered in 1843" ,"by Mosander. It is found in", 840 "such minerals as xenotime," ,"fergusonite, gadolinite, etc..", 841 "It ranks 43rd in abundance of" ,"the elements of the earth's", 842 "crust. It is soft and malle-" ,"able and has a bright, silvery", 843 ", metallic luster. It is" ,"radioactive in at least 9 of", 844 "of its isotopes. It is used" ,"as an alloying agent and as a", 845 "a colorant in glasses."}, 846 847 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 848 {"Thulium was discovered in 1879" ,"by Cleve. It was named for", 849 "the ancient name for Thule," ,"the old name for Scandinavia.", 850 "It occurs with other rare" ,"earths and commercially from", 851 "monazite. It is the least" ,"abundant of the rare earths (", 852 "61st). It is a silvery-gray" ,"metallic element which is", 853 "soft, malleable and ductile." ,"There are few known uses for", 854 "thulium as of yet."}, 855 856 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 857 {"Ytterbium was discovered in" ,"1878 by Marignac. It is a", 858 "soft, malleable, ductile metal" ,"with a bright silvery luster.", 859 "It was named after Ytterby, a" ,"village in Sweden. It ranks", 860 "44th in natural abundance of" ,"elements of the earth's crust.", 861 "It is slowly oxidized by air" ,"and water. Few uses have been", 862 "found except for use as a" ,"portable X-ray source and in", 863 "stress gauges."}, 864 865 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 866 {"Lutetium was discovered in" ,"1907 by Urbain and Welsbach.", 867 "It is named after the ancient" ,"name of Paris: Lutetia. It was", 868 "seperated from Marignac's" ,"ytterium, which was, in fact,", 869 "two elements at one time. It" ,"occurs commercially in to the", 870 "extent of about 0.0003%% in" ,"monazite or associated with", 871 "yttrium. It ranks 59th in" ,"abundance and no commercial", 872 "uses have as yet been found."}, 873 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 874 {"Hafnium was discovered in 1923" ,"by Hevesy and Coster. It is", 875 "named for the Latin name for" ,"Copenhagen: Hafnia. Most Haf-", 876 "nium is found with zirconium" ,"as 1%%-5%%. It is a lustrous,", 877 "silvery, ductile metal. It" ,"resists corrosion due to an", 878 "oxide film, however, it will" ,"burn in air when powdered. It", 879 "is used in control rods for" ,"nuclear reactors, and in high", 880 "temp. alloys and ceramics."}, 881 882 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 883 {"Tantalum was discovered in" ,"1802 by Ekeberg and named for", 884 "the Greek Tantalos, a mythical" ,"character. It is a white,", 885 "ductile, malleable metal. It" ,"occurs mainly in the mineral", 886 "tantalite (FeTa2O6). It is" ,"more resistant than platinum", 887 "to many corrosive agents. The" ,"largest use is in capacitors", 888 "and rectifiers in electronic" ,"circuits, as a bone pin mater-", 889 "ial and in instruments."}, 890 891 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 892 {"Tungsten was discovered in" ,"1783 by the D'Elhuyar brothers", 893 "in Spain. Its name comes from" ,"tung steen, meaning heavy", 894 "stone and its symbol, W, from" ,"wolfram. It occurs in wolf-", 895 "ramite ((Fe,Mn)WO4) and in" ,"scheelite (CaWO4) and some", 896 "other minerals. It is a dull" ,"grey powder or a lusterous and", 897 "silvery white ductile metal." ,"It is used in light bulb fila-", 898 "ments and cutting tools."}, 899 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 900 {"Rhenium was discovered in 1925" ,"by Noddack, Tacke, and Berg in", 901 "Germany. It was named after" ,"the Latin: Rhenus, meaning", 902 "Rhine. It is a 79th in natur-" ,"al abundance in the earth's", 903 "crust. It is silvery white" ,"with a metallic luster and", 904 "gray as a powder. It resists" ,"corrosion and oxidation but", 905 "slowly tarnishes in moist air." ,"It is used in filaments,therm-", 906 "istors, and catalysts."}, 907 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 908 {"Osmium was discovered in 1803" ,"by Tennant and is named for", 909 "the Greek: osme, meaning a" ,"smell. It is a bluish white,", 910 "brittle and dense metal, it is" ,"74th in natural abundance in", 911 "the earth's crust. It is from" ,"iridosmine, a mineral. It is", 912 "used to produce hard alloys," ,"for instrument pivots, phono-", 913 "graph needles and electrical" ,"contacts and also in catalysts", 914 "for high temperature work."}, 915 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 916 {"Iridium was discovered in 1803" ,"by Tennant, it is a hard,", 917 "lusterous, silvery metal. It" ,"is inert to most things but", 918 "can be attacked by fused NaOH." ,"It was named for the Latin:", 919 "iris, meaning rainbow. It is" ,"frequenty found with zinc. It", 920 "is the most corrosion resist-" ,"ant metal known. It occurs", 921 "native and is used for spark" ,"plugs, alloys, crucibles and", 922 "in high temperature apparatus."}, 923 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 924 {"Platinum was discovered in" ,"1735 by Ulloa. The name comes", 925 "from Spanish: platina, meaning" ,"silver. It occurs native with", 926 "other amounts of elements from" ,"the platinum group. It is a", 927 "grayish white metal and is" ,"malleable and ductile. It is", 928 "considerably inert and resists" ,"corrosion. Platinum is useful", 929 "for alloys, high temperatures," ,"as a catalyst, jewelry, ins-", 930 "truments and dentistry."}, 931 {"Gold gets its symbol from the" ,"ancient Latin name: aurum. It", 932 "is soft and dense, bright" ,"yellow and the most malleable", 933 "and ductile of all metals. It" ,"is extremely inert except in", 934 "oxidizing mixtures, alkali" ,"cyanides, and aqua regia as", 935 "well as HCL and HNO3 acids." ,"It is used in jewelry, in", 936 "electronics, and found native." ,"Gold is 75th in order of natu-", 937 "ral abundance."}, 938 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 939 {"Mercury, its symbol comes from" ,"the Latin name: hydrargyrum,", 940 "meaning liquid silver, was" ,"known for centuries. It is a", 941 "liquid with a metallic luster" ,"at room temperature which ", 942 "conducts electricity and is" ,"used in position sensors in", 943 "electronics. Mercury ranks" ,"67th in natural abundance in", 944 "the earth's crust. It occurs" ,"with silver and as a sulfide", 945 "in cinnabar."}, 946 {"Thallium was discovered in" ,"1861 spectroscopically by", 947 "Crookes. It is named for the" ,"Greek: thallos, meaning young", 948 "shoot because the spectral" ,"line was green. It has a", 949 "metallic luster but develops a" ,"bluish tinge after exposure to", 950 "air much like lead. It is" ,"very soft and malleable. It", 951 "is a mixture of two isotopes" ,"which are toxic. It is useful", 952 "in photocells and poisens."}, 953 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 954 {"Lead was one of the first" ,"known metals. It is a dense,", 955 "silvery, soft, malleable, and" ,"ductile metal. It is a poor", 956 "conductor of electricity. It" ,"is toxic when taken internally", 957 "however, has been used for" ,"pipes and paints. Lead is the", 958 "end product of uranium decay." ,"It ranks 36th in abundance in", 959 "the earth's crust. Lead is" ,"obtained from galena (PbS) by", 960 "roasting."}, 961 {"Bismuth has been known since" ,"ancient times and often occurs", 962 "with lead, tin, and zinc. It" ,"ranks 73rd in abundance in the", 963 "earth's crust. It is a metal" ,"with a pinkish tinge. It is", 964 "useful as an alloying agent." ,"It is diamagnetic and tends to", 965 "turn at right angles to a" ,"magnetic field making it use-", 966 "ful for magnometers. It is a" ,"poor conductor of electricity", 967 "and used to make instruments."}, 968 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 969 {"Polonium was discovered in" ,"pitchblende in 1898 by Curie", 970 "who named it for Poland. It is" ,"one of the elements in the U-", 971 "238 decay series. It was the" ,"first element discovered by", 972 "its radioactivity. The only" ,"naturally occuring isotope,", 973 "mass number 210, has a half" ,"life of 138 days. Polonium", 974 "has more isotopes than any" ,"other element. It is produced", 975 "by neutron bombardment of Bi."}, 976 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 977 {"Astatine was first prepared in" ,"1940 by bombarding bismuth", 978 "with alpha particles by Corson" ,", MacKenzie, and Segre at the", 979 "university of California. It" ,"is named for the Greek:", 980 "astatos, meaning unstable." ,"Astatine's longest lived iso-", 981 "tope has a half-life of 8.3" ,"hours, over 20 isotopes known", 982 "and all are short-lived. It" ,"behaves more like a metal than", 983 "any other halogen."}, 984 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 985 {"Radon was discovered in 1900" ,"by Dorn in Germany. As the", 986 "heaviest member of the noble" ,"gases it was long thought to", 987 "be inert, however, since 1962" ,"this has no longer been true.", 988 "Radon-222 is the most abundant" ,"isotope has a half-life of 3.8", 989 "days. Radon makes us most of" ,"the normal background radio-", 990 "activity. It is a colorless" ,"and odorless gas It was named", 991 "after radium, meaning ray."}, 992 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 993 {"Francium was discovered in" ,"1939 by Perey in Paris and", 994 "named after France. It is an" ,"intensely radioactive, short-", 995 "lived element, usually result-" ,"ing from the radioactive decay", 996 "of actinium. The longest liv-" ,"ed isotope, francium-223, or", 997 "actinium-K, has a half-life of" ,"22 minutes. Isotopes from", 998 "mass number 204 to 224 are" ,"known. Francium occurs natu-", 999 "rally in uranium minerals."}, 1000 {"Radium was discovered in pit-" ,"chblende by Marie and Pierre", 1001 "Curie in 1898. Radium is" ,"named for the latin: radius,", 1002 "meaning ray. It is a radio-" ,"active, silvery-white, luster-", 1003 "ous and soft metal. It reacts" ,"with water and air. It glows", 1004 "in the dark and was formerly" ,"used for watch dials before", 1005 "the dangers of radioactivity" ,"were understood. It is a dec-", 1006 "cay product of uranium."}, 1007 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1008 {"Actinium was discovered in" ,"1899 by Debierne. It is found", 1009 "in uranium ores. Two natural-" ,"ly occuring isotopes are known", 1010 "and result from the radioac-" ,"tive decay of unranium-235 and", 1011 "thorium-232. Isotopes ranging" ,"from mass number 209 to 234", 1012 "are known. It is a soft, sil-" ,"very-white metal which glows", 1013 "in the dark. It reacts with" ,"water to evolve hydrogen gas.", 1014 "Actinium is radioactive."}, 1015 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1016 {"Thorium was discovered in 1828" ,"by Berzelius. The element is", 1017 "dark in color, slowly attacked" ,"by water, soluble in HCL and", 1018 "H2SO4. It is 39th in abun-" ,"ance in the earth's crust. It", 1019 "is found in thorite (ThSiO4)" ,"and thorium oxide (ThO2) in", 1020 "India and Brazil. Isotopes" ,"range in mass number from 212", 1021 "to 236. It is useful as a" ,"precursor to uranium-233. It", 1022 "is also used as a catalyst."}, 1023 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1024 {"Protactinium was discovered in" ,"1917 by Hahn and Meitner. Its", 1025 "name comes from the Greek:" ,"protos, meaning first. It", 1026 "occurs in pitchblende and is" ,"a member of the uranium radio-", 1027 "active decay series, and is it" ,"self a radioactive element. It", 1028 "is a silvery metal found nat-" ,"urally in uranium ores. It is", 1029 "attacked by oxygen, steam, and" ,"acids, but not by alkalis.", 1030 "Few uses are known."}, 1031 1032 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1033 {"Uranium was discovered in 1789" ,"by Klaproth in pitchblende and", 1034 "named after the planet Uranus." ,"Its radioactivity was shown in", 1035 "1896 by Becquerel using a" ,"photographic plate. Uranium", 1036 "does not occur free, however" ,"it is found as an oxide or", 1037 "salt in nature. It ranks 48th" ,"in natural abundance. 99%% of", 1038 "the natural isotope is of mass" ,"number 238. Uranium is used", 1039 "in nuclear power plants."}, 1040 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1041 {"Neptunium was discovered in" ,"1940 by McMillian and Abelson.", 1042 "It is produced by bombardment" ,"of unranium-238 with neutrons.", 1043 "Isotopes of mass numbers 228" ,"to 242 are known, neptunium-", 1044 "239 decaying to produce the" ,"important plutonium-239. The", 1045 "most stable isotope has a half" ,"-life of 2.14 million years.", 1046 "Neptunium is a silvery metal" ,"which exists in three differ-", 1047 "ent crystalline forms."}, 1048 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1049 {"Plutonium was discovered in" ,"1941 when it was prepared by", 1050 "Seaborg at the University of" ,"California at Berkeley. Trace", 1051 "amounts have been found in" ,"uranium ores. It was named", 1052 "for the planet pluto. It is" ,"hot to the touch and highly", 1053 "radioactive. This natural" ,"source of heat is used in", 1054 "space vehicles and in nuclear" ,"reactors and nuclear bombs.", 1055 "It is extremely poisonous."}, 1056 1057 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1058 {"Americium was synthesized in" ,"1944 and 1945 by Seaborg and", 1059 "his colleagues at the Univ." ,"of Chicago. The first isotope", 1060 "synthesized was americium-241," ,"produced by bombarding", 1061 "plutonium-239 with neutrons." ,"Americium isotopes have mass", 1062 "numbers ranging from 237 to" ,"247 and half lives ranging", 1063 "from 0.9 minutes (americium-" ,"232) to 7400 years (americium-", 1064 "243)."}, 1065 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1066 {"Curium is an artificially cre-" ,"ated element first synthesized", 1067 "in 1944 by Seaborg, James and" ,"Ghirorso. It was named after", 1068 "Pierre and Marie Curie. It" ,"was the third transuranium", 1069 "element to be discovered. It" ,"was first made in 1944 in the", 1070 "Berkeley, California laborato-" ,"ries by helium-ion bombardment", 1071 "of plutonium-239. Thirteen" ,"isotopes are known, longest", 1072 "lived is 16 million years."}, 1073 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1074 {"Berkelium is an artificially" ,"created radioactive metal. It", 1075 "was discovered in 1949 by" ,"Seaborg, Thompson, and Ghiorso", 1076 "at Berkeley, California and" ,"named for that place. An iso-", 1077 "tope with mass of 243 was pro-" ,"duced by bombarding americium-", 1078 "241 with helium ions and has a" ,"half-life of 4.6 hours. There", 1079 "are isotopes ranging from 242" ,"to 251 with the most stable", 1080 "half-life being 1400 years."}, 1081 1082 {"Californium with a mass number" ,"of 245 was first produced in", 1083 "1950 at the laboratories of" ,"Berkeley by Thompson, Street,", 1084 "Ghiroso and Seaborg. It was" ,"created from curium-242 and", 1085 "alpha particles. Various" ,"isotopes have different half-", 1086 "lives ranging from minutes to" ,"years. Californium is a good", 1087 "source of neutrons which may" ,"lead to uses for it. No natur-", 1088 "al source exists."}, 1089 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1090 {"Einsteinium was discovered in" ,"1952 by Ghiorso and his col-", 1091 "leagues and was produced in a" ,"hydrogen bomb explosion.", 1092 "Isotopes ranging in mass num-" ,"ber from 243 to 256 are known.", 1093 "The element was named in honor" ,"of Albert Einstein. Eleven", 1094 "isotopes are now known with" ,"einsteinium-254 having the", 1095 "longest half-life of 276 days." ,"The 1st isotope, einsteinium", 1096 "-253 has a 1/2-life of 20 days"}, 1097 1098 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1099 {"Fermium was discovered among" ,"the fallout of a hydrogen bomb", 1100 "explosition in 1952 by Albert" ,"Ghiorso and his colleagues. It", 1101 "was also prepared artificially" ,"in a nuclear reactor from", 1102 "plutonium and neutrons and in" ,"in a cyclotron from uranium-", 1103 "238 with nitrogen. It has" ,"mass numbers from 242 to 259.", 1104 "It was named for the nuclear" ,"physicist Enrico Fermi who", 1105 "helped develope the H-bomb."}, 1106 1107 {"Mendelevium was artificially" ,"created at Berkeley in 1955.", 1108 "It was named for the creator" ,"of the periodic table of the", 1109 "elements, Dmitry Mendeleyev." ,"It was produced by bombarding", 1110 "einsteinium-253 with alpha" ,"particles. The most stable", 1111 "isotope has a half-life of 54" ,"days while the most common", 1112 "isotope has a half-life of 1.3" ,"hours."," "}, 1113 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1114 {"Nobelium was produced artifi-" ,"cially in 1958 at the Lawrence", 1115 "Radiation Laboratory at" ,"Berkeley, California. The one", 1116 "isotope was created by bom-" ,"barding curium isotopes with", 1117 "carbon ions. Isotopes with" ,"mass numbers from 250 to 262", 1118 "are known, the most stable is" ,"nobelium-259 with a half-life", 1119 "of 58 minutes while the most" ,"common, nobelium-255, has a", 1120 "half-life of a few minutes."}, 1121 1122 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1123 {"Lawrencium was artificially" ,"created and is a radioactive", 1124 "metallic element. It was" ,"named in honor of the physic-", 1125 "ist Ernest Lawrence and dis-" ,"covered in 1961 at the", 1126 "Lawrence laboratory of the" ,"University of California by", 1127 "Albert Ghiorso and his" ,"colleagues. Its most stable", 1128 "isotope has a half-life of" ,"only about three minutes, only", 1129 "small amounts have existed."}, 1130 1131 {"Dubnium"," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "}, 1132 {"Joliotium"," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "," "}, 1133 /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ /*123456789012345678901234567890*/ 1134 {"Rutherfordium was synthesized" ,"at the Lawrence Radiation Lab-", 1135 "oratory, Berekeley, California" ,"in 1969. Soviet scientists", 1136 "synthesized the element in" ,"1964 and proposed the name", 1137 "kurchatovium. The Inter-" ,"national Union of Pure and Ap-", 1138 "plied Chemistry recently issu-" ,"ed a decision that it would be", 1139 "named Rutherfordium. Modern" ,"atomic theory predicts that it", 1140 "will be chemically like Hf."}, 1141 {"Bohrium","","","","","","","","","","","",""}, 1142 {"Hahnium","","","","","","","","","","","",""}, 1143 {"Meitnerium was synthesized in" ,"1982.","","","","","","","","","","",""} 1144 }; 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 1151 1152