All rights reserved.
%sccs.include.redist.roff%
@(#)title.cdrom 8.2 (Berkeley) 05/17/94
.nr LL 6.5i .EH '''' .OH '''' .EF '''' .OF '''' \& .nr PS 36 .nr VS 39
2 4.4BSD-Lite CD-ROM Companion .bp \& .nr PS 14 .nr VS 16.5
Now in its twentieth year, the USENIX Association, the UNIX and Advanced Computing Systems professional and technical organization, is a not-for-profit membership association of individuals and institutions with an interest in UNIX and UNIX-like systems, and, by extension, C++, X windows, and other advanced tools and technologies.
USENIX and its members are dedicated to:
USENIX publishes a journal (Computing Systems), a newsletter (;login:), Proceedings from its frequent Conferences and Symposia, and a Book Series.
SAGE, The Systems Administrators Guild, a Special Technical Group with the USENIX Association, is dedicated to the advancement of system administration as a profession.
SAGE brings together systems managers and administrators to:
3 4.4BSD-Lite CD-ROM Companion .nr PS 24 .nr VS 26
1 Berkeley Software Distribution .nr PS 18 .nr VS 26
1 April, 1994 .nr PS 18 .nr VS 20
2 Computer Systems Research Group University of California at Berkeley .nr PS 12 .nr VS 14.5
4 A USENIX Association Book O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. 103 Morris Street, Suite A Sebastopol, CA 94572 .bp .nr PS 9 .nr VS 11
First Printing, 1994
Copyright 1979, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
Redistribution and use of this manual and its accompanying CD-ROM in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
\s-1THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.\s+1
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the American National Standards Committee X3, on Information Processing Systems have given us permission to reprint portions of their documentation.
In the following statement, the phrase ``this text'' refers to portions of the system documentation.
``Portions of this text are reprinted and reproduced in electronic form in 4.4BSD from IEEE Std 1003.1-1988, IEEE Standard Portable Operating System Interface for Computer Environments (POSIX), copyright 1988 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. In the event of any discrepancy between these versions and the original IEEE Standard, the original IEEE Standard is the referee document.''
In the following statement, the phrase ``This material'' refers to portions of the system documentation.
``This material is reproduced with permission from American National Standards Committee X3, on Information Processing Systems. Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA), 311 First St., NW, Suite 500, Washington, DC 20001-2178. The developmental work of Programming Language C was completed by the X3J11 Technical Committee.''
The views and conclusions contained in this manual are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Regents of the University of California.
This book was printed and bound in the United States of America.
Distributed by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc.
ISBN: 1-56592-081-3 (Domestic)
ISBN: 1-56592-092-9 (International) .bp \& .nr PS 24 .nr VS 26
1 Contents .nr PS 14 .nr VS 17
| The Computer Systems Research Group, 1979-1993 7 |
| Overview 11 |
| CD-ROM Source Hierarchy 15 |
| Introduction 21 |
| List of Manual Pages 23 |
| Permuted Index 41 |
The contributor list below is derived from the file that resides in
vangogh:~admin/contrib/contrib:
@(#)contrib 5.55 (Berkeley) 4/18/94
This file should not be editted, rather the original contrib file
should be used to recrete this one following the directions at its top.
Contrib starts here and continues to the comment `END OF CONTRIB'.
\& .vs 27
2 The Computer Systems Research Group 1979 - 1993 .nr PS 11 .nr VS 12
CSRG Technical Staff Jim Bloom Keith Bostic Ralph Campbell Kevin Dunlap William N. Joy Michael J. Karels Samuel J. Leffler Marshall Kirk McKusick Miriam Amos Nihart Keith Sklower Marc Teitelbaum Michael Toy CSRG Administration and Support Robert Fabry Domenico Ferrari Susan L. Graham Bob Henry Anne Hughes Bob Kridle David Mosher Pauline Schwartz Mark Seiden Jean WoodOrganizations that funded the CSRG with grants, gifts, personnel, and/or hardware.
Center for Advanced Aviation System Development, The MITRE Corp. Compaq Computer Corporation Cray Research Inc. Department of Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Digital Equipment Corporation The Hewlett-Packard Company NASA Ames Research Center The National Science Foundation The Open Software Foundation UUNET Technologies Inc..OH '\s10CSRG, 1979 - 1993''- % -\s0' .EH '\s10- % -''CSRG, 1979 - 1993\s0' .bp .nr PS 10 .nr VS 11
The following are people and organizations that provided a large subsystem for the BSD releases.
| ANSI C library Chris Torek |
| ANSI C prototypes Donn Seeley and John Kohl |
| Autoconfiguration Robert Elz |
| C library documentation American National Standards Committee X3 |
| CCI 6/32 support Computer Consoles Inc. |
| DEC 3000/5000 support Ralph Campbell |
| Disklabels Symmetric Computer Systems |
| Documentation Cynthia Livingston and The USENIX Association |
| Franz Lisp Richard Fateman, John Foderaro, Keith Sklower, Kevin Layer |
| GCC, GDB The Free Software Foundation |
| Groff James Clark (The FSF) |
| HP300 support Jeff Forys, Mike Hibler, Jay Lepreau, Donn Seeley and the Systems |
| Programming Group; University of Utah Computer Science Department |
| ISODE Marshall Rose |
| Ingres Mike Stonebraker, Gene Wong, and the Berkeley Ingres Research Group |
| Intel 386/486 support Bill Jolitz and TeleMuse |
| Job control Jim Kulp |
| Kerberos Project Athena and MIT |
| Kernel support Bill Shannon and Sun Microsystems Inc. |
| LFS Margo Seltzer, Mendel Rosenblum, Carl Staelin |
| MIPS support Trent Hein |
| Math library K.C. Ng, Zhishun Alex Liu, S. McDonald, P. Tang and W. Kahan |
| NFS Rick Macklem |
| NFS automounter Jan-Simon Pendry |
| Network device drivers Micom-Interlan and Excelan |
| Omron Luna support Akito Fujita and Shigeto Mochida |
| Quotas Robert Elz |
| RPC support Sun Microsystems Inc. |
| Shared library support Rob Gingell and Sun Microsystems Inc. |
| Sony News 3400 support Kazumasa Utashiro |
| Sparc I/II support Computer Systems Engineering Group, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory |
| Stackable file systems John Heidemann |
| Stdio Chris Torek |
| System documentation The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. |
| TCP/IP Rob Gurwitz and Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc. |
| Timezone support Arthur David Olson |
| Transport/Network OSI layers IBM Corporation and the University of Wisconsin |
| Kernel XNS assistance William Nesheim, J. Q. Johnson, Chris Torek, and James O'Toole |
| User level XNS Cornell University |
| VAX 3000 support Mt. Xinu and Tom Ferrin |
| VAX BI support Chris Torek |
| VAX device support Digital Equipment Corporation and Helge Skrivervik |
| Versatec printer/plotter support University of Toronto |
| Virtual memory implementation Avadis Tevanian, Jr., Michael Wayne Young, |
| and the Carnegie-Mellon University Mach project |
| X25 University of British Columbia |
The following are people and organizations that provided a specific item, program, library routine or program maintenance for the BSD system. (Their contribution may not be part of the final 4.4BSD release.) .nr PS 9 .nr VS 10 .vs 10
| 386 device drivers Carnegie-Mellon University Mach project |
| 386 device drivers Don Ahn, Sean Fagan and Tim Tucker |
| HCX device drivers Harris Corporation |
| Kernel enhancements Robert Elz, Peter Ivanov, Ian Johnstone, Piers Lauder, |
| John Lions, Tim Long, Chris Maltby, Greg Rose and John Wainwright |
| ISO-9660 filesystem Pace Willisson, Atsushi Murai |
| adventure(6) Don Woods log(3) Peter McIlroy |
| adventure(6) Jim Gillogly look(1) David Hitz |
| adventure(6) Will Crowther ls(1) Elan Amir |
| apply(1) Rob Pike ls(1) Michael Fischbein |
| apply(1) Jan-Simon Pendry lsearch(3) Roger L. Snyder |
| ar(1) Hugh A. Smith m4(1) Ozan Yigit |
| arithmetic(6) Eamonn McManus mail(1) Kurt Schoens |
| arp(8) Sun Microsystems Inc. make(1) Adam de Boor |
| at(1) Steve Wall me(7) Eric Allman |
| atc(6) Ed James mergesort(3) Peter McIlroy |
| awk(1) Arnold Robbins mh(1) Marshall Rose |
| awk(1) David Trueman mh(1) The Rand Corporation |
| backgammon(6) Alan Char mille(6) Ken Arnold |
| banner(1) Mark Horton mknod(8) Kevin Fall |
| battlestar(6) David Riggle monop(6) Ken Arnold |
| bcd(6) Steve Hayman more(1) Eric Shienbrood |
| bdes(1) Matt Bishop more(1) Mark Nudleman |
| berknet(1) Eric Schmidt mountd(8) Herb Hasler |
| bib(1) Dain Samples mprof(1) Ben Zorn |
| bib(1) Gary M. Levin msgs(1) David Wasley |
| bib(1) Timothy A. Budd multicast Stephen Deering |
| bitstring(3) Paul Vixie mv(1) Ken Smith |
| boggle(6) Barry Brachman named/bind(8) Douglas Terry |
| bpf(4) Steven McCanne named/bind(8) Kevin Dunlap |
| btree(3) Mike Olson news(1) Rick Adams (and a cast of thousands) |
| byte-range locking Scooter Morris nm(1) Hans Huebner |
| caesar(6) John Eldridge pascal(1) Kirk McKusick |
| caesar(6) Stan King pascal(1) Peter Kessler |
| cal(1) Kim Letkeman paste(1) Adam S. Moskowitz |
| cat(1) Kevin Fall patch(1) Larry Wall |
| chess(6) Stuart Cracraft (The FSF) pax(1) Keith Muller |
| ching(6) Guy Harris phantasia(6) C. Robertson |
| cksum(1) James W. Williams phantasia(6) Edward A. Estes |
| clri(8) Rich $alz ping(8) Mike Muuss |
| col(1) Michael Rendell pom(6) Keith E. Brandt |
| comm(1) Case Larsen pr(1) Keith Muller |
| compact(1) Colin L. McMaster primes(6) Landon Curt Noll |
| compress(1) James A. Woods qsort(3) Doug McIlroy |
| compress(1) Joseph Orost qsort(3) Earl Cohen |
| compress(1) Spencer Thomas qsort(3) Jon Bentley |
| courier(1) Eric Cooper quad(3) Chris Torek |
| cp(1) David Hitz quiz(6) Jim R. Oldroyd |
| cpio(1) AT&T quiz(6) Keith Gabryelski |
| crypt(3) Tom Truscott radixsort(3) Dan Bernstein |
| csh(1) Christos Zoulas radixsort(3) Peter McIlroy |
| csh(1) Len Shar rain(6) Eric P. Scott |
| curses(3) Elan Amir ranlib(1) Hugh A. Smith |
| curses(3) Ken Arnold rcs(1) Walter F. Tichy |
| cut(1) Adam S. Moskowitz rdist(1) Michael Cooper |
| cut(1) Marciano Pitargue regex(3) Henry Spencer |
| dbx(1) Mark Linton robots(6) Ken Arnold |
| dd(1) Keith Muller rogue(6) Timothy C. Stoehr |
| dd(1) Lance Visser rs(1) John Kunze |
| des(1) Jim Gillogly sail(6) David Riggle |
| des(1) Phil Karn sail(6) Edward Wang |
| des(1) Richard Outerbridge sccs(1) Eric Allman |
| dipress(1) Xerox Corporation scsiformat(1) Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory |
| disklabel(8) Symmetric Computer Systems sdb(1) Howard Katseff |
| du(1) Chris Newcomb sed(1) Diomidis Spinellis |
| dungeon(6) R.M. Supnik sendmail(8) Eric Allman |
| ed(1) Rodney Ruddock setmode(3) Dave Borman |
| emacs(1) Richard Stallman sh(1) Kenneth Almquist |
| erf(3) Peter McIlroy, K.C. Ng slattach(8) Rick Adams |
| error(1) Robert R. Henry slip(8) Rick Adams |
| ex(1) Mark Horton spms(1) Peter J. Nicklin |
| factor(6) Landon Curt Noll strtod(3) David M. Gay |
| file(1) Ian Darwin swab(3) Jeffrey Mogul |
| find(1) Cimarron Taylor sysconf(3) Sean Eric Fagan |
| finger(1) Tony Nardo sysline(1) J.K. Foderaro |
| fish(6) Muffy Barkocy syslog(3) Eric Allman |
| fmt(1) Kurt Schoens systat(1) Bill Reeves |
| fnmatch(3) Guido van Rossum systat(1) Robert Elz |
| fold(1) Kevin Ruddy tail(1) Edward Sze-Tyan Wang |
| fortune(6) Ken Arnold talk(1) Clem Cole |
| fpr(1) Robert Corbett talk(1) Kipp Hickman |
| fsdb(8) Computer Consoles Inc. talk(1) Peter Moore |
| fsplit(1) Asa Romberger telnet(1) Dave Borman |
| fsplit(1) Jerry Berkman telnet(1) Paul Borman |
| gcc/groff integration UUNET Technologies, Inc. termcap(5) John A. Kunze |
| gcore(1) Eric Cooper termcap(5) Mark Horton |
| getcap(3) Casey Leedom test(1) Kenneth Almquist |
| glob(3) Guido van Rossum tetris(6) Chris Torek |
| gprof(1) Peter Kessler tetris(6) Darren F. Provine |
| gprof(1) Robert R. Henry timed(8) Riccardo Gusella |
| hack(6) Andries Brouwer (and a cast of thousands) timed(8) Stefano Zatti |
| hangman(6) Ken Arnold tn3270(1) Gregory Minshall |
| hash(3) Margo Seltzer tr(1) Igor Belchinskiy |
| heapsort(3) Elmer Yglesias traceroute(8) Van Jacobson |
| heapsort(3) Kevin Lew trek(6) Eric Allman |
| heapsort(3) Ronnie Kon tset(1) Eric Allman |
| hunt(6) Conrad Huang tsort(1) Michael Rendell |
| hunt(6) Greg Couch unifdef(1) Dave Yost |
| icon(1) Bill Mitchell uniq(1) Case Larsen |
| icon(1) Ralph Griswold uucpd(8) Rick Adams |
| indent(1) David Willcox uudecode(1) Mark Horton |
| indent(1) Eric Schmidt uuencode(1) Mark Horton |
| indent(1) James Gosling uuq(1) Lou Salkind |
| indent(1) Sun Microsystems uuq(1) Rick Adams |
| init(1) Donn Seeley uusnap(8) Randy King |
| j0(3) Sun Microsystems, Inc. uusnap(8) Rick Adams |
| j1(3) Sun Microsystems, Inc. vacation(1) Eric Allman |
| jn(3) Sun Microsystems, Inc. vi(1) Steve Kirkendall |
| join(1) David Goodenough which(1) Peter Kessler |
| join(1) Michiro Hikida who(1) Michael Fischbein |
| join(1) Steve Hayman window(1) Edward Wang |
| jot(1) John Kunze worm(6) Michael Toy |
| jove(1) Jonathon Payne worms(6) Eric P. Scott |
| kermit(1) Columbia University write(1) Craig Leres |
| kvm(3) Peter Shipley write(1) Jef Poskanzer |
| kvm(3) Steven McCanne wump(6) Dave Taylor |
| lam(1) John Kunze X25/Ethernet Univ. of Erlangen-Nuremberg |
| larn(6) Noah Morgan X25/LLC2 Dirk Husemann |
| lastcomm(1) Len Edmondson xargs(1) John B. Roll Jr. |
| lex(1) Vern Paxson xneko(6) Masayuki Koba |
| libm(3) Peter McIlroy XNSrouted(1) Bill Nesheim |
| libm(3) UUNET Technologies, Inc. xroach(6) J.T. Anderson |
| locate(1) James A. Woods yacc(1) Robert Paul Corbett |
| lock(1) Bob Toxen |
END OF CONTRIB: Contrib ends here.
\& .EH '''' .OH '''' .bp .OH '\s10Overview''- % -\s0' .EH '\s10- % -''Overview\s0' .nr PS 10 .nr VS 12 \& delim $$ .EN
\s24Overview\s0 4.4BSD-Lite Description
This cd-rom contains the source code, manual pages and other documentation, and research papers from the first revision of the University of California, Berkeley's 4.4BSD-Lite distribution.
The 4.4BSD-Lite software is copyrighted by the University of California and others, but may be freely redistributed and used in products without fee, as long as the due credit, copyright notice, and other requirements described in the file /COPYRIGHT are met.
The distribution includes both software developed at Berkeley and much software contributed by authors outside Berkeley. Please see the previous section of this document for a list of the many contributors to the system.
The layout of the 4.4BSD-Lite distribution is described in the hier(7) manual page, which follows. A table of contents and permuted index for the 4.4BSD-Lite manual pages follow as well.
The cd-rom is in ISO-9660 format, with Rock Ridge Extensions. For example, to mount on a 4.4BSD-Lite system on which the CD-ROM drive is connected as SCSI unit 1, ensure that the directory /cdrom exists, then enter ``mount -r -t cd9660 /dev/sd1a /cdrom''. To mount on a Sun, ensure that the directory /cdrom exists, then enter ``mount -r -t hsts /dev/sr0 /cdrom''.
The 4.4BSD-Lite distribution is a source distribution only, and does not contain program binaries for any architecture. It is not possible to compile or run this software without a pre-existing system that is already installed and running. In addition, the distribution does not include sources for the complete 4.4BSD system. It includes source code and manual pages for the C library, approximately 95% of the utilities distributed in 4.4BSD, and all but a few files from the kernel. The system is almost entirely ANSI C and IEEE POSIX 1003.1 and 1003.2 standards compliant. 4.4BSD-Lite Features
The major new facilities available in the 4.4BSD-Lite release are a new virtual memory system, the addition of ISO/OSI networking support, a new virtual filesystem interface supporting filesystem stacking, a freely redistributable implementation of NFS, a log-structured filesystem, enhancement of the local filesystems to support files and filesystems that are up to $2 sup 63$ bytes in size, enhanced security and system management support, and the conversion to and addition of the IEEE Std1003.1 (``POSIX'') facilities and many of the IEEE Std1003.2 facilities. In addition, many new utilities and additions have been made to the C-library. The kernel sources have been reorganized to collect all machine-dependent files for each architecture under one directory, and most of the machine-independent code is now free of code conditional on specific machines. The user structure and process structure have been reorganized to eliminate the statically-mapped user structure and to make most of the process resources shareable by multiple processes. The system and include files have been converted to be compatible with ANSI C, including function prototypes for most of the exported functions. There are numerous other changes throughout the system. Changes in the Kernel
This release includes several important structural kernel changes. The kernel uses a new internal system call convention; the use of global (``u-dot'') variables for parameters and error returns has been eliminated, and interrupted system calls no longer abort using non-local goto's (longjmp's). A new sleep interface separates signal handling from scheduling priority, returning characteristic errors to abort or restart the current system call. This sleep call also passes a string describing the process state, which is used by the ps(1) program. The old sleep interface can be used only for non-interruptible sleeps.
Many data structures that were previously statically allocated are now allocated dynamically. These structures include mount entries, file entries, user open file descriptors, the process entries, the vnode table, the name cache, and the quota structures.
The 4.4BSD-Lite distribution adds support for several new architectures including SPARC-based Sparcstations 1 and 2, MIPS-based Decstation 3100 and 5000 and Sony NEWS, 68000-based Hewlett-Packard 9000/300 and Omron Luna, and 386-based Personal Computers. Both the HP300 and SPARC ports feature the ability to run binaries built for the native operating system (HP-UX or SunOS) by emulating their system calls. Though this native operating system compatibility was provided by the developers as needed for their purposes and is by no means complete, it is complete enough to run several non-trivial applications including those that require HP-UX or SunOS shared libraries. For example, the vendor supplied X11 server and windowing environment can be used on both the HP300 and SPARC. Virtual memory changes
The new virtual memory implementation is derived from the MACH operating system developed at Carnegie-Mellon, and was ported to the BSD kernel at the University of Utah. The MACH virtual memory system call interface has been replaced with the ``mmap''-based interface described in the ``Berkeley Software Architecture Manual (4.4 Edition)'' (see the UNIX Programmer's Manual, Supplementary Documents, PSD:5). The interface is similar to the interfaces shipped by several commercial vendors such as Sun, USL, and Convex Computer Corp. The integration of the new virtual memory is functionally complete, but, like most MACH-based virtual memory systems, still has serious performance problems under heavy memory load. Networking additions and changes
The ISO/OSI Networking consists of a kernel implementation of
transport class 4 (TP-4),
connectionless networking protocol (CLNP),
and 802.3-based link-level support (hardware-compatible with Ethernet*).
ditroff screws up the environment for footnote. This restores it.
.ev 1
.vs 9
.ev
end of ditroff fix
.FS
*Ethernet is a trademark of the Xerox Corporation.
.FE
We also include support for ISO Connection-Oriented Network Service,
X.25, and TP-0.
The session and presentation layers are provided outside
the kernel by the ISO development environment (ISODE).
Included in this development environment are file
transfer and management (FTAM), virtual terminals (VT),
a directory services implementation (X.500), and miscellaneous other utilities.
Several important enhancements have been added to the TCP/IP protocols including TCP header prediction and serial line IP (SLIP) with header compression. The routing implementation has been completely rewritten to use a hierarchical routing tree with a mask per route to support the arbitrary levels of routing found in the ISO protocols. The routing table also stores and caches route characteristics to speed the adaptation of the throughput and congestion avoidance algorithms. Additions and changes to filesystems
The 4.4BSD-Lite distribution contains most of the interfaces specified in the IEEE Std1003.1 system interface standard. Filesystem additions include IEEE Std1003.1 FIFOs, byte-range file locking, and saved user and group identifiers.
A new virtual filesystem interface has been added to the kernel to support multiple filesystems. In comparison with other interfaces, the Berkeley interface has been structured for more efficient support of filesystems that maintain state (such as the local filesystem). The interface has been extended with support for stackable filesystems done at UCLA. These extensions allow for filesystems to be layered on top of each other and allow new vnode operations to be added without requiring changes to existing filesystem implementations. For example, the umap filesystem is used to mount a sub-tree of an existing filesystem that uses a different set of uids and gids than the local system. Such a filesystem could be mounted from a remote site via NFS or it could be a filesystem on removable media brought from some foreign location that uses a different password file.
In addition to the local ``fast filesystem,'' we have added an implementation of the network filesystem (NFS) that fully interoperates with the NFS shipped by Sun and its licensees. Because our NFS implementation was implemented using only the publicly available NFS specification, it does not require a license from Sun to use in source or binary form. By default it runs over UDP to be compatible with Sun's implementation. However, it can be configured on a per-mount basis to run over TCP. Using TCP allows it to be used quickly and efficiently through gateways and over long-haul networks. Using an extended protocol, it supports Leases to allow a limited callback mechanism that greatly reduces the network traffic necessary to maintain cache consistency between the server and its clients.
A new log-structured filesystem has been added that provides near disk-speed output and fast crash recovery. It is still experimental in the 4.4BSD-Lite release, so we do not recommend it for production use. We have also added a memory-based filesystem that runs in pageable memory, allowing large temporary filesystems without requiring dedicated physical memory.
The local ``fast filesystem'' has been enhanced to do clustering which allows large pieces of files to be allocated contiguously resulting in near doubling of filesystem throughput. The filesystem interface has been extended to allow files and filesystems to grow to $2 sup 63$ bytes in size. The quota system has been rewritten to support both user and group quotas (simultaneously if desired). Quota expiration is based on time rather than the previous metric of number of logins over quota. This change makes quotas more useful on fileservers onto which users seldom log in.
The system security has been greatly enhanced by the addition of additional file flags that permit a file to be marked as immutable or append only. Once set, these flags can only be cleared by the super-user when the system is running single user. To protect against indiscriminate reading or writing of kernel memory, all writing and most reading of kernel data structures must be done using a new ``sysctl'' interface. The information to be accessed is described through an extensible ``Management Information Base'' (MIB). delim off .EN POSIX terminal driver changes
The biggest area of change is a new terminal driver. The terminal driver is similar to the System V terminal driver with the addition of the necessary extensions to get the functionality previously available in the 4.3BSD terminal driver. 4.4BSD-Lite also adds the IEEE Std1003.1 job control interface, which is similar to the 4.3BSD job control interface, but adds a security model that was missing in the 4.3BSD job control implementation. A new system call, setsid, creates a job-control session consisting of a single process group with one member, the caller, that becomes a session leader. Only a session leader may acquire a controlling terminal. This is done explicitly via a \s-1TIOCSCTTY\s+1 ioctl call, not implicitly by an open call. The call fails if the terminal is in use.
For backward compatibility, both the old ioctl calls and old options to stty are emulated. Changes to the utilities
There are several new tools and utilities included in this release. A new version of ``make'' allows much-simplified makefiles for the system software and allows compilation for multiple architectures from the same source tree (which may be mounted read-only). Notable additions to the libraries include functions to traverse a filesystem hierarchy, database interfaces to btree and hashing functions, a new, fast implementation of stdio, and a radix sort function. The additions to the utility suite include greatly enhanced versions of programs that display system status information, implementations of various traditional tools described in the IEEE Std1003.2 standard, and many others.
We have been tracking the IEEE Std1003.2 shell and utility work and have included prototypes of many of the proposed utilities. Most of the traditional utilities have been replaced with implementations conformant to the POSIX standards. Almost the entire manual suite has been rewritten to reflect the POSIX defined interfaces. In rewriting this software, we have generally been rewarded with significant performance improvements. Most of the libraries and header files have been converted to be compliant with ANSI C. The system libraries and utilities all compile with either ANSI or traditional C.
The Kerberos (version 4) authentication software has been integrated into much of the system (including NFS) to provide the first real network authentication on BSD.
A new implementation of the ex/vi text editors is available in this release. It is intended as a bug-for-bug compatible version of the editors. It also has a few new features: 8-bit clean data, lines and files limited only by memory and disk space, split screens, tags stacks and left-right scrolling among them. Nex/nvi is not yet production quality; future versions of this software may be retrieved by anonymous ftp from ftp.cs.berkeley.edu, in the directory ucb/4bsd.
The find utility has two new options that are important to be aware of if you intend to use NFS. The ``fstype'' and ``prune'' options can be used together to prevent find from crossing NFS mount points. Additions and changes to the libraries
The curses library has been largely rewritten. Important additional features include support for scrolling and termios.
An application front-end editing library, named libedit, has been added to the system.
A superset implementation of the SunOS kernel memory interface library, libkvm, has been integrated into the system.
Nearly the entire C-library has been rewritten. Some highlights of the changes to the 4.4BSD-Lite C-library:
We were greatly assisted by the past employees of the Computer Systems Research Group: Mike Karels, Keith Sklower, and Marc Tietelbaum. Our distribution coordinator, Pauline Schwartz, has reliably managed the finances and the mechanics of shipping distributions for nearly the entire fourteen years of the group's existence. Without the help of lawyers Mary MacDonald, Joel Linzner, and Carla Shapiro, the 4.4BSD-Lite distribution would never have seen the light of day. Much help was provided by Chris Demetriou in getting bug fixes from NetBSD integrated back into the 4.4BSD-Lite distribution.
The vast majority of the 4.4BSD-Lite distribution comes from the numerous people in the UNIX community that provided their time and energy in creating the software contained in this release. We dedicate this distribution to them.
M. K. McKusick K. Bostic\& .EH '''' .OH '''' .bp +7 .OH '\s10Introduction''- % -\s0' .EH '\s10- % -''Introduction\s0' \\$1\^\\$2 .. \\$1\\$2\^\\$3 ..
\s24Introduction\s0 .nr PS 10 .nr VS 12
The documentation for 4.4BSD is in a format similar to the one used for the 4.2BSD and 4.3BSD manuals. It is divided into three sets; each set consists of one or more volumes. The abbreviations for the volume names are listed in square brackets; the abbreviations for the manual sections are listed in parenthesis. I. User's Documents User's Reference Manual [URM] Commands (1) Games (6) Macro packages and language conventions (7) User's Supplementary Documents [USD] Getting Started Basic Utilities Communicating with the World Text Editing Document Preparation Amusements II. Programmer's Documents Programmer's Reference Manual [PRM] System calls (2) Subroutines (3) Special files (4) File formats and conventions (5) Programmer's Supplementary Documents [PSD] Documents of Historic Interest Languages in common use Programming Tools Programming Libraries General Reference III. System Manager's Manual [SMM] Maintenance commands (8) System Installation and Administration
References to individual documents are given as ``volume:document'', thus USD:1 refers to the first document in the ``User's Supplementary Documents''. References to manual pages are given as ``name(section)'' thus sh (1) refers to the shell manual entry in section 1.
The manual pages give descriptions of the features of the 4.4BSD system, as developed at the University of California at Berkeley. They do not attempt to provide perspective or tutorial information about the 4.4BSD operating system, its facilities, or its implementation. Various documents on those topics are contained in the ``\s-1UNIX\s+1 User's Supplementary Documents'' (USD), the ``\s-1UNIX\s+1 Programmer's Supplementary Documents'' (PSD), and ``\s-1UNIX\s+1 System Manager's Manual'' (SMM). In particular, for an overview see ``The \s-1UNIX\s+1 Time-Sharing System'' (PSD:1) by Ritchie and Thompson; for a tutorial see ``\s8\s-1UNIX\s+1\s10 for Beginners'' (USD:1) by Kernighan, and for an guide to the new features of this latest version, see ``Berkeley Software Architecture Manual (4.4 Edition)'' (PSD:5).
Within the area it surveys, this volume attempts to be timely, complete and concise. Where the latter two objectives conflict, the obvious is often left unsaid in favor of brevity. It is intended that each program be described as it is, not as it should be. Inevitably, this means that various sections will soon be out of date.
Commands are programs intended to be invoked directly by the user, in contrast to subroutines, that are intended to be called by the user's programs. User commands are described in URM section 1. Commands generally reside in directory /bin (for bin \|ary programs). Some programs also reside in /\|usr/\|bin, .R to save space in /\|bin. .R These directories are searched automatically by the command interpreters. Additional directories that may be of interest include /\|usr/\|contrib/\|bin, .R which has contributed software /\|usr/\|old/\|bin, .R which has old but sometimes still useful software and /\|usr/\|local/\|bin, .R which contains software local to your site.
Games have been relegated to URM section 6 and /\|usr/\|games, .R to keep them from contaminating the more staid information of URM section 1.
Miscellaneous collection of information necessary for writing in various specialized languages such as character codes, macro packages for typesetting, etc is contained in URM section 7.
System calls are entries into the BSD kernel. The system call interface is identical to a C language procedure call; the equivalent C procedures are described in PRM section 2.
An assortment of subroutines is available; they are described in PRM section 3. The primary libraries in which they are kept are described in intro (3). The functions are described in terms of C.
PRM section 4 discusses the characteristics of each system ``file'' that refers to an I/O device. The names in this section refer to the HP300 device names for the hardware, instead of the names of the special files themselves.
The file formats and conventions (PRM section 5) documents the structure of particular kinds of files; for example, the form of the output of the loader and assembler is given. Excluded are files used by only one command, for example the assembler's intermediate files.
Commands and procedures intended for use primarily by the system administrator are described in SMM section 8. The files described here are almost all kept in the directory /\|etc. The system administration binaries reside in /\|sbin, .R and /\|usr/\|sbin.
Each section consists of independent entries of a page or so each. The name of the entry is in the upper corners of its pages, together with the section number. Entries within each section are alphabetized. The page numbers of each entry start at 1; it is infeasible to number consecutively the pages of a document like this that is republished in many variant forms.
All entries are based on a common format; not all subsections always appear.
The name subsection lists the exact names of the commands and subroutines covered under the entry and gives a short description of their purpose.
The synopsis "" summarizes the use of the program being described. A few conventions are used, particularly in the Commands subsection:
Boldface words are considered literals, and are typed just as they appear.
Square brackets [ ] around an argument show that the argument is optional. When an argument is given as ``name'', it always refers to a file name.
Ellipses ``.\|.\|.'' are used to show that the previous argument-prototype may be repeated.
A final convention is used by the commands themselves. An argument beginning with a minus sign ``-'' usually means that it is an option-specifying argument, even if it appears in a position where a file name could appear. Therefore, it is unwise to have files whose names begin with ``-''.
The files "" subsection gives the names of files that are built into the program.
A see also .R subsection gives pointers to related information.
A diagnostics subsection discusses the diagnostic indications that may be produced. Messages that are intended to be self-explanatory are not listed.
The bugs "" subsection gives known bugs and sometimes deficiencies. Occasionally the suggested fix is also described.
\s24List \|of \|Manual \|Pages\s0 .nr x 0.5
\\$1\f3 \a \\$2 .. .cs 3 .ss 18 \\$2. \\$3 .ss 12 .cs 3 36 .so \\$1 .. .t toc1 1 "Commands and Application Programs" .t toc2 2 "System Calls" .t toc3 3 "C Library Subroutines" .t toc4 4 "Special Files" .t toc5 5 "File Formats" .t toc6 6 "Games" .t toc7 7 "Miscellaneous" .t toc8 8 "System Maintenance" .cs 3 \& .EH '''' .OH '''' .bp \& .OH '\s10Permuted Index''- % -\s0' .EH '\s10- % -''Permuted Index\s0'\s24Permuted \|Index\s0 .nr PS 8 .nr VS 9
backup from slotput 1, slot, 2
.tr ~.cs 3 36 \h"3i-\w\\$1\\*(s1\\$2\\*(s2u"\\$1\\*(s1\\$2\\*(s2\\$3\\*(s3\\$4\\*y\\$5 .. .so ptxx .cs 3